Power's Avdharna Political Science | Concept of Power in Political Science
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| Concept of power in political science in Hindi |
Essay Contents:
- The Power Concept: Problem of Definition
- Political Power: Nature of Political Power
- Sources of Power
- Types of Power
- Techniques for the Use of Power
- Political Power as an End or as a Means
- Political Power: Typical Errors of Evaluation
- Power Based Classification of States
- 'The Concept of Power Vacuum'
- The Power Concept: Critical Appraisal
Essay # 1. The Power Concept: Problem of Definition :
The concept of ' power ' is the central concept of modern political science. Power is considered to be the main underlying element in the state, sovereignty, government, law, etc. Baker has called politics inseparable from power. Catlin and Laswell have termed State Science as the 'Science of Power'.
William Robson considers political science to be concerned with power in society, its nature, basis, processes, scope and results . In ancient times, political philosophers and thinkers have not neglected the concept of 'Shakti' . It is true that his approach was traditional and therefore his attention was more towards institutional studies and the search for the history of the origin of the state etc.
Nevertheless, prominent thinkers like Machiavelli, Hobbes, Kautilya, Hegel, Bossanke, etc. paid a lot of attention to the study of power and its related elements. Kautilya has clearly written that- 'The basis of the whole worldly life is punishment.'
Today the fact has been accepted that- 'Politics is non-existent in the absence of power'. It is difficult to separate power from politics, whether in the field of politics, internal or international. Pro. Hans J. In the words of Morgenthau- " Every type of politics whether domestic or international is a process of power struggle. "
In the words of MacIver- all motion, all relations, all processes, all arrangements and every phenomenon occurring in nature is the manifestation of power. In fact, power plays the same role in politics as money or money plays in a market economy.
Power is the most important concept of international politics . Since international politics is concerned with conflict resolution, it is the distribution of power within a political community that determines how conflict is to be resolved and whether all parties will abide by the terms of conflict resolution.
There are many problems regarding the definition of 'power'. At the very outset we are not in agreement about the definitions of words like 'power', 'influence' and 'power'. Robert Dahl, Harold Dr. Lasswell and Rowe have used power in the sense of 'influence'.
Kautilya has shown Shakti in the form of force. Morgenthau and Catlin have used power in the sense of 'control'. In his book Leviathan, Hobbes has written about power as a 'general tendency' that the desire for power is the continuous and incessant desire of human being which ends in death. Then it is also a problem whether power should be considered as 'end' or 'means'. How can the power of a nation be measured?
Essay # 2. Political Power: Nature ( Nature of Political Power):
The power we are discussing in international politics is 'Political Power'. Political power means controlling the actions and mind of other human beings. Political power is slightly different from physical power. When violence becomes a reality, it signifies the abdication of political power in favor of military power.
Some definitions of 'power' are as follows:
According to Robert Bierstadt:
"Power is the ability to use force, not its actual use."
According to MacIver:
“Power is the ability to control, regulate, and direct individuals and behavior.”
According to Arnold Brecht:
“Power is such an ability that can give effect to its will.”
According to Morgenthau:
“There is a psychological relationship between those who exercise power and those upon whom it is being exercised. It gives those who fall in the first category the ability to control some of the actions of those who fall in the second category by influencing their mind.
According to Robert Dahl:
“Power is the name of such a special condition of the mutual relations of people, under which one party can influence the other party and make him do some such work which would not have been done by him otherwise.”
According to Goldhammer and Shills:
“A person is said to be powerful only to the extent that he can influence the behavior of others in accordance with his goals.”
According to Arginsky:
“Power is the ability to influence the conduct of other nations in accordance with one's ends. As long as a nation cannot do this, however big it may be, however prosperous it may be, it cannot be called powerful.
George Catlin was the first person in Political Science to develop a systematic theory or conceptual framework in which power was placed at the center stage. Catlin has accepted Max Weber's definition of politics in which it has been described as "the struggle for power or the process of influencing those who are in power".
In his view, the field of political science is "the study of social controls or, to be more precise, the controlling relations of human and even brute desires". Catlin has emphasized that 'every process of control is a component of political science'.
According to Catlin, Political Science is 'the study of that position of control which is determined by a fundamental, but unconscious, motivation to (obtain) power'. In his analysis of the concept of power, Catlin has made it clear that by power he does not mean a position of 'dominance' or military power.
Criticizing Morgenthau's famous statement that "whatever may be the ultimate aim of international politics, its immediate aim is to acquire power", Katkin suggested that 'cooperation' is also a form of power. It is possible .
We find the most detailed analysis of the concept of power in the works of Laswell and Keran. He writes, "The concept of power is probably the basic concept of all politics. The political process means the shaping of power, the distribution of power and the use of power."
Lasswell notes with admiration Catlin's view that "Political Science, as a theoretical study, is concerned with the relations of men among themselves, with relations which may have their object in the sphere of grouping and competition and Even in the field of obedience and control, in so far as they are not engaged in the pursuit of production and consumption of anything but seek to bend other human beings to their will. The goal of political relations is always the pursuit of power by men.
Bertrand Russell's definition of power is that it is the 'creation of desired effects' can be applied in relation to both individuals and groups, but in political terms when we talk about power, it means a wider range of desired effects. It is not created, but only those effects are created which are directly related to other human beings.
Thus a distinction must be made between political power, which influences other persons, and power over nature. Friedreich defined power as "a special kind of human relationship" and Toney defined it as the ability of a person or a group of persons to influence the behavior of other persons or groups in the direction that the wielder of power wants. ability to give.
Describing the meaning of power as participation in the making of decisions, Lasswell writes- “The making of decisions is such a process which is related to other persons, in which it is decided how those other persons will run on the prescribed policies.”
Lasswell does not necessarily believe that the use of force is always, or generally, based on violence, or that the use of force can be regarded as the essence of a position of power in the sense of violence and physical brutality.
The basis of power can be as much faith, loyalty, habit and passivity as the pursuit of interests. It is also not necessary that whenever controls are imposed, they should be in the form of violence. Power only means that effective control can be kept on (other's) policies, the means of making this control effective can be many and different types.
Political power, in fact, is such a complex concept, behind which it is always recognized that it can have many forms, such as property, arms, civil rights, influence on public opinion - none of which is considered dependent on the other. Can go
In short, political power means control or dominance over the behavior of others. Robert Dahl has written more clearly that 'A' has power over 'B' to the extent that he can get 'B' to do things that he would not have done otherwise.
Means political power is a relation. Yet, it is a relationship that is not always clear. Thus, if Soviet Union forces were present in Afghanistan and Soviet Union did not withdraw forces even after repeated threats from America, then we can say that Soviet Union had political power.
But it is also possible that Soviet forces would have withdrawn from Afghanistan for some other reason and if it was just a coincidence that Soviet forces would have started withdrawing at the same time when India or the non-aligned nations were strongly demanding so, it would have affected India or the non-aligned nations. No evidence will be found about the 'power' of.
Often it is very difficult to know from the position of 'Power Relationship' that why there was a change in the behavior of a person or a group? According to Morgenthau- “When we talk of power, we mean the power that human beings exercise over the mind and actions of other human beings. By political power, we mean the relations between the people's powers and their relations with the general public.
Three things can be said about political power:
First:
It is natural for the superior-subordinate relationship to appear among the holders of political power.
Second:
Political power is ultimately exercised over the common people and they have to obey the one who exercises power.
Third:
Political power reveals psychological relationship and not physical or material relationship. According to Morgenthau - "The psychological relationship between these two nations, those who use power and those against whom power is used, is political power."
Arginsky sees power mainly in its negative aspect. That is, power is mostly the name of Capabilities to prevent other nations from doing unwanted work. By the way, the name of the ability to make them do unwanted work is also power. Thus power can be negative as well as positive.
Essay # 3. Sources of Political Power :
It is not possible to give a complete list of the sources of political power, because there is a lot of difference of opinion among the thinkers in this regard. Wealth, resources of natural resources, human power and weapons, etc. are important organs of the power of any nation. But their importance has to be judged from the point of view to what extent they are used to influence the behavior of other states.
Of course, money is an important element of power in general because, with it, one state can give much as a reward to influence the behavior of another state. Money can also buy other elements of power, such as the means of using force.
Arab countries and Iran have inexhaustible reserves of oil due to which they influence the behavior of other countries. But power is not attained by mere possession of wealth or natural resources. For example, the United States of America had no special power in international relations for a long time, although it was a very wealthy state.
The power of a state or an individual is derived not only from the ownership of wealth but also from its use. Only that nation or person is powerful, which has the sources of power and also knows how to successfully use its resources to influence or control the behavior of other nations and individuals. Look at the situation in Germany.
Before the First World War, it was among the most powerful nations of the world, but after losing the war, its position remained insignificant. Now it is emerging as a super power. It is true that Germany lost wealth, territory and resources in two world wars, but its biggest loss was that its ability to influence other countries went away.
Power can have many sources. The first source of power is knowledge. Through knowledge other characteristics of the person are operated in such a way that they can become the means of power. The quality of a person's leadership, his will power, his tolerance power, the power to express himself, etc. are different important aspects of power.
Possessions are also a source of power. Physical material ownership, financial means etc. can be included under receipts. It is believed that property and wealth provide indirect power to the nation or individual.
Organizations in themselves are an important source of power. The saying 'Organization is strength' holds enough truth. Sometimes the size of the nation also becomes a source of power. It is believed that the larger the size of a nation, the more it develops the potential to become powerful.
Essay # 4. Types of Political Power :
Political power is expressed in three forms:
(1) physical strength,
(2) psychological strength and
(3) Economic power.
1. Physical Power :
The government of every nation exercises political power, but it is able to do so because the military is subordinate to the political power. Whenever such a subordinate position of the army comes to an end, then the political power goes into the hands of the military leadership.
It has been seen in the international world that sometimes military revolutions (coup d'etat) happen and political power keeps on being transferred from the political leadership to the military leadership. In countries where there is a lack of democratic tradition and there is disobedience to public opinion, there has been a tendency for political power to be subservient to military power.
Latin America was ruled in this manner for years and the United States, which controlled the economy of these Latin American countries, actually controlled the political power of these countries through its Central Intelligence Agency. Coups have been playing an important role in overturning the military regimes of these countries.
As a result of the rapid development of technology, the physical power of the state remains divided among its many components, in which the land army, navy, air force and nuclear power centers with missiles are the main ones. This type of division of military power gives some security to the political power and military revolution does not happen easily in big countries.
2. Psychological Power:
Psychological power consists of symbolic devices that influence the minds and emotions of individuals. It is a way of controlling the thoughts and actions of people through propaganda.
States cleverly use psychological power in international politics. During the Arab-Israeli war, Israel cleverly disclosed that it had some atomic bombs. In reality, the aim of spreading such news was only to lower the morale of the Arab nations.
During the Republic Day parade, India often displays various tanks and special weapons, the aim of which is to show neighbors that India is now very powerful militarily. Rockets and tanks were displayed in the former Soviet Union on the anniversary of the October Revolution, which was a way of demonstrating psychological power.
To establish effective control over the people of the state, many times governments take the help of propaganda media. To increase their psychological impact, many states keep on making special radio broadcasts every day. Radio Peking continues to broadcast in Hindi daily.
Tashkent radio station used to broadcast in Hindi and other Indian languages under its special 'Peace and Progress' Hindi program. B. B. .C. And Voice of America broadcasts in several foreign languages.
The purpose of these broadcasts is to make the enemy weak, to weaken his morale and to achieve the objectives by spreading chaos in the enemy or hostile state. The implication of power is that, the opposition should be forced to accept something.
When this is done by military force, we give it the name of military power, but any nation can be forced in this way by diplomacy, propaganda etc. When we use propaganda, diplomacy etc. in such a way that the other country is forced to accept our policies, then it will be called psychological power.
3. Economic Power:
Political power is used in practice through economic means. The foreign trade of any state is not only related to selling its goods and earning foreign exchange, but it is also another important goal to expand its political power in that country through trade. Through its foreign exports, a state can make any other state economically dependent on itself.
The political effects of foreign economic aid are as follows:
(i) The country cannot become self-sufficient with foreign aid and becomes economically and technologically dependent,
(ii) In return for the immediate benefits of foreign aid, the country is burdened with a huge debt, which becomes a burden to repay.
(iii) Self-respect is more important than foreign aid for economic development. Due to prolonged economic dependence, the morale and self-respect of the country is diminished.
The countries which provide foreign aid to India, want India to remain under their influence and stop its independent thinking and action. It is said that in 1966 we had to devalue our rupee only because of foreign economic pressure.
Most of the trade of Nepal and Bhutan is from India, so they are economically dependent on India. American multinational cartels are in a position to control the economy of Latin American countries as two-thirds of their foreign trade is with the United States.
In 1975, 50 percent of the shares of large Canadian companies were held by American multinational corporations. Most of the trade of Western Europe and Japan is done with the United States of America, so the economy of these countries has become dependent on America.
We will discuss these four methods in brief:
(1) Persuasion:
The easiest way to use the power is to explain. If 'B' accepts the persuasion of 'A', then its result is permanent. The only thing A has to do in order to use this method is to define the whole situation in such a way that B will change his mind and agree to it.
The basis of diplomacy in international politics is the method of persuasion. Diplomatic representatives try to influence the diplomatic representatives of other opposing nations through logic and tact to get them to behave in the way they suggest. The success of a diplomat should be judged on the basis to what extent he can use the 'art of persuasion' without resorting to the methods of coercion, punishment and force.
(2) Rewards:
The other method available to 'A' of making 'B's conduct favorable to him is that of inducement, reward or reward. In this method, a nation tries to influence the behavior of other nations by promising them inducements. These temptations can be of four types: psychological, physical, economic and political.
Temptations are generally material. 'A' can entice nation 'B' with territory, military aid, military bases or training facilities, etc. Nowadays economic incentives have special importance. One nation can give money to another in the form of loan or aid to get it on its side.
The economic aid policies adopted by the US and the Soviet Union after the Second World War can be called the method of using power by inducement. Under political temptations, it comes to the point of giving independence to the subordinate state to support the point of view of another state in an international conference.
(3) Punishment :
The third way of using power is by threatening punishment. If 'B', in spite of persuasion and inducement, does an act which 'A' thinks undesirable, 'A' may in that case threaten 'B' with punishment. Punitive actions are implemented in international politics, but to make punishment effective, it is necessary that it should only be threatened and not used.
(4) Force:
Force is the last way to use power. There is a need to differentiate between punishment and use of force. Punishment is threatened in the form of deterrence, but when this threat is actually carried out, it becomes use of force.
War is the most extreme form of use of force in international politics, in fact it is the last stage of use of force. It is used only when the nation concerned cannot be forced to change its behavior by persuasion or by bribery or threats. As a means of using power, the use of force is taken only as a last weapon.
Essay # 6. Political Power as an End or as a Means:
According to the idealistic thinkers, the present struggle for power is a temporary feature of international politics and they have been believing that this competition for power will end as soon as the circumstances change.
According to Bentham – the competition for power will end by giving freedom to the colonies, by abolishing commercial controls in the opinion of Proud and by the end of capitalism in the words of Karl Marx.
Similar views were also expressed on the establishment of the League of Nations and the United Nations in the modern era. US Secretary of State Cardehl, returning from the Moscow Conference in 1943, said that the establishment of the United Nations would end power politics and initiate a new chapter of international co-operation.
Still the conflict, struggle, competition and experiment of power has not been finished till date. This conflict seems to be eternal and continuously dynamic because the tendency to survive, to be safe and to establish dominance by influencing others is the tendency of human beings only.
The constant competition for power is the main feature of modern states as each state wants to maintain its position and survive. The feeling of keeping oneself safe is the main motivation for the accumulation of energy. War, military and territorial expansion are motivated by the basic feeling of being safe.
According to E. H. Carr, the war was defensive and preventive in view of most of the participating states in the First World War. In the words of Reinhold Niebuhr - "It is very difficult to draw a dividing line between the desire to be safe and the desire to accumulate power."
Accumulation of power for national security is the fundamental right of the state. In international politics, a nation has to resort to power to protect its independence or fulfill its national interests through foreign policy.
Even in times of peace, international politics is another name for the continuous process of exerting pressure by one nation on another through force. Only those states can make a place in the international world, which have power and ability and also demonstrate and use it.
Each state being powerful by itself achieves success in foreign policy in peace time and is able to protect itself in war only by its own strength. Therefore, the goal of every state is to develop maximum national power. That 'power' which must be anxiously guarded in one's own kingdom and anxiously looked upon in others, is in the last analysis military power or the ability to fight.
Power itself means gaining 'friends' and influencing people, arousing sympathy, gaining the right to obey, using force, propaganda, and by means of physical means and trickery to generate respect and cooperation. ability to act persuasively', but that power which is concerned primarily with the dealings of states with other states, with politicians acting within the framework of a well-organized government, political parties, pressure communities, seminars and There is a simpler, more limited and more uncertain quality than the power of the voters.
Here the opportunity to take the intention of force is reduced and in fact strongly restrained by those who have a monopoly on the power to use force. Fraud and favor—that is, appeals to prejudice, reason, and greed—predominate in regular circumstances, but in free states these means of influence, though often important, are limited in their extent and quality.
Power is the last tactic of emperors in dealing with other emperors. Based on all past experience, it is necessary for every state that its ability to defend its interests and secure its position vis-à-vis other states depends on its ability to use armed violence effectively.
Barring a few exceptions, no State, which does not have the power to wage war decisively, can reasonably expect other States to accede to its demands, to pay attention to its wishes or to recognize its right to live. Do it
In the process of dealing with diplomacy, 'decency' is most important. 'Maryada' means prestige of power. In this way, diplomacy is a disguised war, just as war means an attempt to achieve political objectives by using military force instead of negotiating a settlement. In both the situations, the ability to use weapons cleverly and successfully is mostly decisive.
Therefore, the meaning of following power often becomes an end in itself, not a means to other ends. If the state did not have the power to fulfill its ultimate objective - self-defense - then other objectives would have no meaning.
The use of force with the ability to make war, due to the fact that each state can ideally protect itself only by the extension of its own power, and can guarantee its own security only by depriving others of their security. transforms into form.
Every state can defend its independence against all possible threats only by putting an end to the independence of its neighbors and competitors. If she has sufficient power to do so, and others lack sufficient power to check her influence, she will proceed with mathematical determination to subject them to her authority.
The reality being this, it becomes necessary for every state that hopes to survive, not only to maintain its power in a form sufficient to meet the uncertain eventualities that may arise, but also to maintain the power of others. sufficient to prevent any such increase as would enable them to pass the test of strength.
Means of Power:
Is power an instrument in international politics? Why do states want to control the behavior of other states? Just as money is a means and many other things can be bought with money, similarly power is a means of foreign policy and through power foreign policy goals (national interests) can be achieved.
Through power a nation can get prestige, land, raw material, security and friends. In 1962, China attacked India and stopped the war as soon as possible. In 1979, even after attacking Vietnam, China stopped the war in a few days.
It seems that the aim of China was only to demonstrate its power. In this, where he had the desire to get prestige, he also got some regional benefit. In both cases, China used power as an instrument of foreign policy.
Power is achievable:
In international politics, sometimes individuals and nations make the mistake of considering power as the end. The ambition of politicians to accumulate maximum power and the tendency to use force or threat on minor issues turns 'power' into an end.
For Hitler and Mussolini, power was not a means but an end. The essence of the six principles in Morgenthau's political realism is that 'National Interest can be defined in terms of Power'. That is, power is the national interest.
The ultimate goal of every nation's foreign policy is 'acquisition of power'. Power is an end in itself. In fact, power is the end as well as the means. Where power is an end in itself, it can also be a means to other ends.
In international politics, power is a means because it fulfills the national interest and it is an end because maintaining the supremacy of power is necessary for the smooth achievement of the national interest. America and China are considered powerful, so many times small states obey them just because of the fear of their accumulated power.
Therefore, the accumulated power becomes feasible for America and China to achieve their national interests. It is because of this supremacy of power that it becomes easy for America and China to achieve their desired goals.
Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, no. Ra. America's invasion of Grenada, India's efforts for the independence of Bangladesh, American importance in the Gulf War, etc. are ways of using power as a means to achieve desired national interests.
Essay # 7. Political Power: Typical Errors of Evaluation:
Pro. Morgenthau has pointed out three specific mistakes in the evaluation of political power:
The first mistake is when a nation itself becomes an autocratic power and ignores the relative importance of other powers.
The second mistake is when a nation considers only one of its power elements to be permanent, which definitely played an important role in the past, and ignores the dynamic change that involves most of the power elements.
The third mistake occurs when a nation gives decisive importance to one of its power elements and does not care about the other power elements.
In other words, "The first mistake consists in not reconciling the forces of one nation with the forces of other nations; It consists in harmonizing one power element of one nation with other power elements of the same nation.”
Essay # 8. Classification of States on the basis of Political Power ( Power Based Classification of States):
More than 193 states are active in the international system. On the basis of power, some of these nations are called big nations and some are small nations. According to David Vital, on the basis of the area of a country and its population, it can be decided whether that country is a big or a small nation.
In addition to the category of large and small nations, nations can be divided into four categories on the basis of power. The first category is of the Great Powers. Superpower can be called that country whose policy-makers think that that country alone can decisively influence international politics. The second category is of the secondary powers.
That country will be called a sub-superpower whose policy-makers think that their country can exert some influence on international politics, even if that influence is not decisive. The third category is of Middle Powers.
The nation whose leader understands that his country alone cannot influence international politics and may have to work together with other countries to play the role of an influencer, then it will be called a middle power.
The fourth category is of Small Power. The country's policy-makers believe that their country can neither influence international politics alone nor can it become an influence only with other nations, then it will be called a small power.
The concept of 'superpower' has also been used for the classification of states on the basis of power. This concept came to an end in the Vienna Conference of 1815 and hence it is called the concept of 19th century. On the basis of this concept, nations can be divided into two categories: Great Power and Super Power. Former Soviet Union and America come in the category of greatest powers and France, Britain, China, India, Japan, Germany etc. come in the category of superpowers.
By superpower, we mean a nation that can impose its will on another nation or nations, but those other nations have no influence on it. Before the emergence of superpowers like America and Soviet Union, there were many superpowers in international politics who could 'impose their will' on smaller nations.
Bipolar international politics emerged after the Second World War. The military power of America and Soviet Union has increased so much that it has become necessary to keep them in a special category. This special category is the category of 'greatest power'. China started trying to enter this special category.
According to Ranke, only that country can be called a superpower, which can compete with the combined power of all other countries in the war by remaining in a victorious position. According to this definition, neither the US nor the Soviet Union can be called a superpower because both the countries could not claim that they were fighting against all the other countries of the world on the basis of their personal power only. Have the ability to win.
It is also said that the concept of 'Super Power' is meaningless. Today Britain, France, China do not have the status that America and Soviet Union had in terms of power. Even though Britain and France are members of the Security Council after World War II, they have been unable to play the role of a superpower in international politics.
There has been a huge difference between the power of America and the former Soviet Union on the one hand and the power of Britain and France on the other. After the Second World War, only that nation can be called a superpower which has the ability to impose its will on other nations despite opposition from other nations.
Today only America has this capability, therefore it should be called a Great Power and not a Super Power. We make the mistake of calling Britain and France a superpower because they played a historic role in international politics before the Second World War.
Arginsky in his book 'World Politics' has divided the states into four parts on the basis of power:
i. The Powerful and Satisfied Nation,
II. The Powerful and Dissatisfied,
iii. The Weak and Satisfied and
iv. The Weak and Dissatisfied nation.
Powerful and contented nations are those nations which control the international system. Presently America, England, France, Germany, Italy and Japan can be taken in this category. These nations are satisfied with the present international system.
Other type of nations are powerful but are dissatisfied with the present international system and want radical changes in it. China and India can be placed in this category. Powerful disgruntled nations can start a world war.
The third category of nations are middle powers but are satisfied with the present international system. Canada, Australia, Argentina can be kept in this category. There is no threat to the world order from these states.
In the fourth category come those states which are completely dissatisfied with the present world order but they do not have enough power to change the system. The newly independent countries of Asia and Africa come under this category. Arginsky has classified the states on the basis of power through a suitable diagram.
Essay # 9. 'The Concept of Power Vacuum:
Absence of a super power or withdrawal of a super power in any land, continent or region of the world is to create 'Power-Vacuum'. The presence of a superpower is considered to be an indicator of political stability in that region.
Absence of a superpower leads to a situation of power vacuum, which results in competition, war and political unrest and instability among other powers. After World War II, when Britain decided to withdraw its military fleet from South-East Asia, it was believed that a 'power-void' would arise in this region. Communist China may try to fill this power vacuum.
America's only concern was that the states of this region should not come under the influence of China. For this reason America created the 'SEATO' organization. American presence in Vietnam was a reflection of this spirit.
The Truman Doctrine was based on the concept of 'power vacuum'. The point was that the decline of British influence in the Middle East had created a 'political vacuum', according to the US, and the Soviet Union wanted to take advantage of this situation.
It wanted to end the British influence and establish its dominance in the region itself. Earlier, in the name of helping Turkey and Greece, America itself wanted to enter this region. The Eisenhower theory was also based on this concept. The Suez War of 1956 can be considered as a turning point in the history of West Asia.
This ended forever the residual influence of Britain and France in the region. Seeing the growing Soviet influence in West Asia, there was great concern and dismay in America. America has never accepted that the real problem of this region is nationalism. Therefore, neglecting Arab nationalism, he accepted the theory of power vacuum.
This meant that the withdrawal of British influence left a kind of political vacuum in the region and thus increased the risk of Moscow taking over the space vacated by London. Therefore, to face this situation, on June 5, 1956, President Eisenhower announced a policy regarding West Asia, which is called the Eisenhower Doctrine.
Essay # 10. The Power Concept: Critical Appraisal:
Philosopher Bertrand Russell is the first major thinker who strongly condemned the instrumentality of power in politics. Russell believed that the equality that comes from the distribution of power is more important for the freedom of man than the equality or distribution of wealth.
He believed that the centralization of political power in the state, whether capitalist or communist, is more dangerous for the development of human personality than the centralization of economic power. Bertrand Russell believed that wherever power is used, freedom ends in the same amount. Bertrand Russell supported his arguments against power through a psychological analysis of human nature.
He believed that the increase in the power of the state is as dangerous in the international arena as in the field of domestic politics. It harms those who use it as much as those against whom it is used.
At one place he has written- "The habit of using power strengthens the tendency or passion of competition, for this reason the state in which the power is centralized is more warlike than the state in which it is diffused."
Power's Avdharna Political Science | Concept of Power in Political Science
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| Concept of power in political science in Hindi |
Essay Contents:
- The Power Concept: Problem of Definition
- Political Power: Nature of Political Power
- Sources of Power
- Types of Power
- Techniques for the Use of Power
- Political Power as an End or as a Means
- Political Power: Typical Errors of Evaluation
- Power Based Classification of States
- 'The Concept of Power Vacuum'
- The Power Concept: Critical Appraisal
Essay # 1. The Power Concept: Problem of Definition :
The concept of ' power ' is the central concept of modern political science. Power is considered to be the main underlying element in the state, sovereignty, government, law, etc. Baker has called politics inseparable from power. Catlin and Laswell have termed State Science as the 'Science of Power'.
William Robson considers political science to be concerned with power in society, its nature, basis, processes, scope and results . In ancient times, political philosophers and thinkers have not neglected the concept of 'Shakti' . It is true that his approach was traditional and therefore his attention was more towards institutional studies and the search for the history of the origin of the state etc.
Nevertheless, prominent thinkers like Machiavelli, Hobbes, Kautilya, Hegel, Bossanke, etc. paid a lot of attention to the study of power and its related elements. Kautilya has clearly written that- 'The basis of the whole worldly life is punishment.'
Today the fact has been accepted that- 'Politics is non-existent in the absence of power'. It is difficult to separate power from politics, whether in the field of politics, internal or international. Pro. Hans J. In the words of Morgenthau- " Every type of politics whether domestic or international is a process of power struggle. "
In the words of MacIver- all motion, all relations, all processes, all arrangements and every phenomenon occurring in nature is the manifestation of power. In fact, power plays the same role in politics as money or money plays in a market economy.
Power is the most important concept of international politics . Since international politics is concerned with conflict resolution, it is the distribution of power within a political community that determines how conflict is to be resolved and whether all parties will abide by the terms of conflict resolution.
There are many problems regarding the definition of 'power'. At the very outset we are not in agreement about the definitions of words like 'power', 'influence' and 'power'. Robert Dahl, Harold Dr. Lasswell and Rowe have used power in the sense of 'influence'.
Kautilya has shown Shakti in the form of force. Morgenthau and Catlin have used power in the sense of 'control'. In his book Leviathan, Hobbes has written about power as a 'general tendency' that the desire for power is the continuous and incessant desire of human being which ends in death. Then it is also a problem whether power should be considered as 'end' or 'means'. How can the power of a nation be measured?
Essay # 2. Political Power: Nature ( Nature of Political Power):
The power we are discussing in international politics is 'Political Power'. Political power means controlling the actions and mind of other human beings. Political power is slightly different from physical power. When violence becomes a reality, it signifies the abdication of political power in favor of military power.
Some definitions of 'power' are as follows:
According to Robert Bierstadt:
"Power is the ability to use force, not its actual use."
According to MacIver:
“Power is the ability to control, regulate, and direct individuals and behavior.”
According to Arnold Brecht:
“Power is such an ability that can give effect to its will.”
According to Morgenthau:
“There is a psychological relationship between those who exercise power and those upon whom it is being exercised. It gives those who fall in the first category the ability to control some of the actions of those who fall in the second category by influencing their mind.
According to Robert Dahl:
“Power is the name of such a special condition of the mutual relations of people, under which one party can influence the other party and make him do some such work which would not have been done by him otherwise.”
According to Goldhammer and Shills:
“A person is said to be powerful only to the extent that he can influence the behavior of others in accordance with his goals.”
According to Arginsky:
“Power is the ability to influence the conduct of other nations in accordance with one's ends. As long as a nation cannot do this, however big it may be, however prosperous it may be, it cannot be called powerful.
George Catlin was the first person in Political Science to develop a systematic theory or conceptual framework in which power was placed at the center stage. Catlin has accepted Max Weber's definition of politics in which it has been described as "the struggle for power or the process of influencing those who are in power".
In his view, the field of political science is "the study of social controls or, to be more precise, the controlling relations of human and even brute desires". Catlin has emphasized that 'every process of control is a component of political science'.
According to Catlin, Political Science is 'the study of that position of control which is determined by a fundamental, but unconscious, motivation to (obtain) power'. In his analysis of the concept of power, Catlin has made it clear that by power he does not mean a position of 'dominance' or military power.
Criticizing Morgenthau's famous statement that "whatever may be the ultimate aim of international politics, its immediate aim is to acquire power", Katkin suggested that 'cooperation' is also a form of power. It is possible .
We find the most detailed analysis of the concept of power in the works of Laswell and Keran. He writes, "The concept of power is probably the basic concept of all politics. The political process means the shaping of power, the distribution of power and the use of power."
Lasswell notes with admiration Catlin's view that "Political Science, as a theoretical study, is concerned with the relations of men among themselves, with relations which may have their object in the sphere of grouping and competition and Even in the field of obedience and control, in so far as they are not engaged in the pursuit of production and consumption of anything but seek to bend other human beings to their will. The goal of political relations is always the pursuit of power by men.
Bertrand Russell's definition of power is that it is the 'creation of desired effects' can be applied in relation to both individuals and groups, but in political terms when we talk about power, it means a wider range of desired effects. It is not created, but only those effects are created which are directly related to other human beings.
Thus a distinction must be made between political power, which influences other persons, and power over nature. Friedreich defined power as "a special kind of human relationship" and Toney defined it as the ability of a person or a group of persons to influence the behavior of other persons or groups in the direction that the wielder of power wants. ability to give.
Describing the meaning of power as participation in the making of decisions, Lasswell writes- “The making of decisions is such a process which is related to other persons, in which it is decided how those other persons will run on the prescribed policies.”
Lasswell does not necessarily believe that the use of force is always, or generally, based on violence, or that the use of force can be regarded as the essence of a position of power in the sense of violence and physical brutality.
The basis of power can be as much faith, loyalty, habit and passivity as the pursuit of interests. It is also not necessary that whenever controls are imposed, they should be in the form of violence. Power only means that effective control can be kept on (other's) policies, the means of making this control effective can be many and different types.
Political power, in fact, is such a complex concept, behind which it is always recognized that it can have many forms, such as property, arms, civil rights, influence on public opinion - none of which is considered dependent on the other. Can go
In short, political power means control or dominance over the behavior of others. Robert Dahl has written more clearly that 'A' has power over 'B' to the extent that he can get 'B' to do things that he would not have done otherwise.
Means political power is a relation. Yet, it is a relationship that is not always clear. Thus, if Soviet Union forces were present in Afghanistan and Soviet Union did not withdraw forces even after repeated threats from America, then we can say that Soviet Union had political power.
But it is also possible that Soviet forces would have withdrawn from Afghanistan for some other reason and if it was just a coincidence that Soviet forces would have started withdrawing at the same time when India or the non-aligned nations were strongly demanding so, it would have affected India or the non-aligned nations. No evidence will be found about the 'power' of.
Often it is very difficult to know from the position of 'Power Relationship' that why there was a change in the behavior of a person or a group? According to Morgenthau- “When we talk of power, we mean the power that human beings exercise over the mind and actions of other human beings. By political power, we mean the relations between the people's powers and their relations with the general public.
Three things can be said about political power:
First:
It is natural for the superior-subordinate relationship to appear among the holders of political power.
Second:
Political power is ultimately exercised over the common people and they have to obey the one who exercises power.
Third:
Political power reveals psychological relationship and not physical or material relationship. According to Morgenthau - "The psychological relationship between these two nations, those who use power and those against whom power is used, is political power."
Arginsky sees power mainly in its negative aspect. That is, power is mostly the name of Capabilities to prevent other nations from doing unwanted work. By the way, the name of the ability to make them do unwanted work is also power. Thus power can be negative as well as positive.
Essay # 3. Sources of Political Power :
It is not possible to give a complete list of the sources of political power, because there is a lot of difference of opinion among the thinkers in this regard. Wealth, resources of natural resources, human power and weapons, etc. are important organs of the power of any nation. But their importance has to be judged from the point of view to what extent they are used to influence the behavior of other states.
Of course, money is an important element of power in general because, with it, one state can give much as a reward to influence the behavior of another state. Money can also buy other elements of power, such as the means of using force.
Arab countries and Iran have inexhaustible reserves of oil due to which they influence the behavior of other countries. But power is not attained by mere possession of wealth or natural resources. For example, the United States of America had no special power in international relations for a long time, although it was a very wealthy state.
The power of a state or an individual is derived not only from the ownership of wealth but also from its use. Only that nation or person is powerful, which has the sources of power and also knows how to successfully use its resources to influence or control the behavior of other nations and individuals. Look at the situation in Germany.
Before the First World War, it was among the most powerful nations of the world, but after losing the war, its position remained insignificant. Now it is emerging as a super power. It is true that Germany lost wealth, territory and resources in two world wars, but its biggest loss was that its ability to influence other countries went away.
Power can have many sources. The first source of power is knowledge. Through knowledge other characteristics of the person are operated in such a way that they can become the means of power. The quality of a person's leadership, his will power, his tolerance power, the power to express himself, etc. are different important aspects of power.
Possessions are also a source of power. Physical material ownership, financial means etc. can be included under receipts. It is believed that property and wealth provide indirect power to the nation or individual.
Organizations in themselves are an important source of power. The saying 'Organization is strength' holds enough truth. Sometimes the size of the nation also becomes a source of power. It is believed that the larger the size of a nation, the more it develops the potential to become powerful.
Essay # 4. Types of Political Power :
Political power is expressed in three forms:
(1) physical strength,
(2) psychological strength and
(3) Economic power.
1. Physical Power :
The government of every nation exercises political power, but it is able to do so because the military is subordinate to the political power. Whenever such a subordinate position of the army comes to an end, then the political power goes into the hands of the military leadership.
It has been seen in the international world that sometimes military revolutions (coup d'etat) happen and political power keeps on being transferred from the political leadership to the military leadership. In countries where there is a lack of democratic tradition and there is disobedience to public opinion, there has been a tendency for political power to be subservient to military power.
Latin America was ruled in this manner for years and the United States, which controlled the economy of these Latin American countries, actually controlled the political power of these countries through its Central Intelligence Agency. Coups have been playing an important role in overturning the military regimes of these countries.
As a result of the rapid development of technology, the physical power of the state remains divided among its many components, in which the land army, navy, air force and nuclear power centers with missiles are the main ones. This type of division of military power gives some security to the political power and military revolution does not happen easily in big countries.
2. Psychological Power:
Psychological power consists of symbolic devices that influence the minds and emotions of individuals. It is a way of controlling the thoughts and actions of people through propaganda.
States cleverly use psychological power in international politics. During the Arab-Israeli war, Israel cleverly disclosed that it had some atomic bombs. In reality, the aim of spreading such news was only to lower the morale of the Arab nations.
During the Republic Day parade, India often displays various tanks and special weapons, the aim of which is to show neighbors that India is now very powerful militarily. Rockets and tanks were displayed in the former Soviet Union on the anniversary of the October Revolution, which was a way of demonstrating psychological power.
To establish effective control over the people of the state, many times governments take the help of propaganda media. To increase their psychological impact, many states keep on making special radio broadcasts every day. Radio Peking continues to broadcast in Hindi daily.
Tashkent radio station used to broadcast in Hindi and other Indian languages under its special 'Peace and Progress' Hindi program. B. B. .C. And Voice of America broadcasts in several foreign languages.
The purpose of these broadcasts is to make the enemy weak, to weaken his morale and to achieve the objectives by spreading chaos in the enemy or hostile state. The implication of power is that, the opposition should be forced to accept something.
When this is done by military force, we give it the name of military power, but any nation can be forced in this way by diplomacy, propaganda etc. When we use propaganda, diplomacy etc. in such a way that the other country is forced to accept our policies, then it will be called psychological power.
3. Economic Power:
Political power is used in practice through economic means. The foreign trade of any state is not only related to selling its goods and earning foreign exchange, but it is also another important goal to expand its political power in that country through trade. Through its foreign exports, a state can make any other state economically dependent on itself.
The political effects of foreign economic aid are as follows:
(i) The country cannot become self-sufficient with foreign aid and becomes economically and technologically dependent,
(ii) In return for the immediate benefits of foreign aid, the country is burdened with a huge debt, which becomes a burden to repay.
(iii) Self-respect is more important than foreign aid for economic development. Due to prolonged economic dependence, the morale and self-respect of the country is diminished.
The countries which provide foreign aid to India, want India to remain under their influence and stop its independent thinking and action. It is said that in 1966 we had to devalue our rupee only because of foreign economic pressure.
Most of the trade of Nepal and Bhutan is from India, so they are economically dependent on India. American multinational cartels are in a position to control the economy of Latin American countries as two-thirds of their foreign trade is with the United States.
In 1975, 50 percent of the shares of large Canadian companies were held by American multinational corporations. Most of the trade of Western Europe and Japan is done with the United States of America, so the economy of these countries has become dependent on America.
We will discuss these four methods in brief:
(1) Persuasion:
The easiest way to use the power is to explain. If 'B' accepts the persuasion of 'A', then its result is permanent. The only thing A has to do in order to use this method is to define the whole situation in such a way that B will change his mind and agree to it.
The basis of diplomacy in international politics is the method of persuasion. Diplomatic representatives try to influence the diplomatic representatives of other opposing nations through logic and tact to get them to behave in the way they suggest. The success of a diplomat should be judged on the basis to what extent he can use the 'art of persuasion' without resorting to the methods of coercion, punishment and force.
(2) Rewards:
The other method available to 'A' of making 'B's conduct favorable to him is that of inducement, reward or reward. In this method, a nation tries to influence the behavior of other nations by promising them inducements. These temptations can be of four types: psychological, physical, economic and political.
Temptations are generally material. 'A' can entice nation 'B' with territory, military aid, military bases or training facilities, etc. Nowadays economic incentives have special importance. One nation can give money to another in the form of loan or aid to get it on its side.
The economic aid policies adopted by the US and the Soviet Union after the Second World War can be called the method of using power by inducement. Under political temptations, it comes to the point of giving independence to the subordinate state to support the point of view of another state in an international conference.
(3) Punishment :
The third way of using power is by threatening punishment. If 'B', in spite of persuasion and inducement, does an act which 'A' thinks undesirable, 'A' may in that case threaten 'B' with punishment. Punitive actions are implemented in international politics, but to make punishment effective, it is necessary that it should only be threatened and not used.
(4) Force:
Force is the last way to use power. There is a need to differentiate between punishment and use of force. Punishment is threatened in the form of deterrence, but when this threat is actually carried out, it becomes use of force.
War is the most extreme form of use of force in international politics, in fact it is the last stage of use of force. It is used only when the nation concerned cannot be forced to change its behavior by persuasion or by bribery or threats. As a means of using power, the use of force is taken only as a last weapon.
Essay # 6. Political Power as an End or as a Means:
According to the idealistic thinkers, the present struggle for power is a temporary feature of international politics and they have been believing that this competition for power will end as soon as the circumstances change.
According to Bentham – the competition for power will end by giving freedom to the colonies, by abolishing commercial controls in the opinion of Proud and by the end of capitalism in the words of Karl Marx.
Similar views were also expressed on the establishment of the League of Nations and the United Nations in the modern era. US Secretary of State Cardehl, returning from the Moscow Conference in 1943, said that the establishment of the United Nations would end power politics and initiate a new chapter of international co-operation.
Still the conflict, struggle, competition and experiment of power has not been finished till date. This conflict seems to be eternal and continuously dynamic because the tendency to survive, to be safe and to establish dominance by influencing others is the tendency of human beings only.
The constant competition for power is the main feature of modern states as each state wants to maintain its position and survive. The feeling of keeping oneself safe is the main motivation for the accumulation of energy. War, military and territorial expansion are motivated by the basic feeling of being safe.
According to E. H. Carr, the war was defensive and preventive in view of most of the participating states in the First World War. In the words of Reinhold Niebuhr - "It is very difficult to draw a dividing line between the desire to be safe and the desire to accumulate power."
Accumulation of power for national security is the fundamental right of the state. In international politics, a nation has to resort to power to protect its independence or fulfill its national interests through foreign policy.
Even in times of peace, international politics is another name for the continuous process of exerting pressure by one nation on another through force. Only those states can make a place in the international world, which have power and ability and also demonstrate and use it.
Each state being powerful by itself achieves success in foreign policy in peace time and is able to protect itself in war only by its own strength. Therefore, the goal of every state is to develop maximum national power. That 'power' which must be anxiously guarded in one's own kingdom and anxiously looked upon in others, is in the last analysis military power or the ability to fight.
Power itself means gaining 'friends' and influencing people, arousing sympathy, gaining the right to obey, using force, propaganda, and by means of physical means and trickery to generate respect and cooperation. ability to act persuasively', but that power which is concerned primarily with the dealings of states with other states, with politicians acting within the framework of a well-organized government, political parties, pressure communities, seminars and There is a simpler, more limited and more uncertain quality than the power of the voters.
Here the opportunity to take the intention of force is reduced and in fact strongly restrained by those who have a monopoly on the power to use force. Fraud and favor—that is, appeals to prejudice, reason, and greed—predominate in regular circumstances, but in free states these means of influence, though often important, are limited in their extent and quality.
Power is the last tactic of emperors in dealing with other emperors. Based on all past experience, it is necessary for every state that its ability to defend its interests and secure its position vis-à-vis other states depends on its ability to use armed violence effectively.
Barring a few exceptions, no State, which does not have the power to wage war decisively, can reasonably expect other States to accede to its demands, to pay attention to its wishes or to recognize its right to live. Do it
In the process of dealing with diplomacy, 'decency' is most important. 'Maryada' means prestige of power. In this way, diplomacy is a disguised war, just as war means an attempt to achieve political objectives by using military force instead of negotiating a settlement. In both the situations, the ability to use weapons cleverly and successfully is mostly decisive.
Therefore, the meaning of following power often becomes an end in itself, not a means to other ends. If the state did not have the power to fulfill its ultimate objective - self-defense - then other objectives would have no meaning.
The use of force with the ability to make war, due to the fact that each state can ideally protect itself only by the extension of its own power, and can guarantee its own security only by depriving others of their security. transforms into form.
Every state can defend its independence against all possible threats only by putting an end to the independence of its neighbors and competitors. If she has sufficient power to do so, and others lack sufficient power to check her influence, she will proceed with mathematical determination to subject them to her authority.
The reality being this, it becomes necessary for every state that hopes to survive, not only to maintain its power in a form sufficient to meet the uncertain eventualities that may arise, but also to maintain the power of others. sufficient to prevent any such increase as would enable them to pass the test of strength.
Means of Power:
Is power an instrument in international politics? Why do states want to control the behavior of other states? Just as money is a means and many other things can be bought with money, similarly power is a means of foreign policy and through power foreign policy goals (national interests) can be achieved.
Through power a nation can get prestige, land, raw material, security and friends. In 1962, China attacked India and stopped the war as soon as possible. In 1979, even after attacking Vietnam, China stopped the war in a few days.
It seems that the aim of China was only to demonstrate its power. In this, where he had the desire to get prestige, he also got some regional benefit. In both cases, China used power as an instrument of foreign policy.
Power is achievable:
In international politics, sometimes individuals and nations make the mistake of considering power as the end. The ambition of politicians to accumulate maximum power and the tendency to use force or threat on minor issues turns 'power' into an end.
For Hitler and Mussolini, power was not a means but an end. The essence of the six principles in Morgenthau's political realism is that 'National Interest can be defined in terms of Power'. That is, power is the national interest.
The ultimate goal of every nation's foreign policy is 'acquisition of power'. Power is an end in itself. In fact, power is the end as well as the means. Where power is an end in itself, it can also be a means to other ends.
In international politics, power is a means because it fulfills the national interest and it is an end because maintaining the supremacy of power is necessary for the smooth achievement of the national interest. America and China are considered powerful, so many times small states obey them just because of the fear of their accumulated power.
Therefore, the accumulated power becomes feasible for America and China to achieve their national interests. It is because of this supremacy of power that it becomes easy for America and China to achieve their desired goals.
Soviet intervention in Afghanistan, no. Ra. America's invasion of Grenada, India's efforts for the independence of Bangladesh, American importance in the Gulf War, etc. are ways of using power as a means to achieve desired national interests.
Essay # 7. Political Power: Typical Errors of Evaluation:
Pro. Morgenthau has pointed out three specific mistakes in the evaluation of political power:
The first mistake is when a nation itself becomes an autocratic power and ignores the relative importance of other powers.
The second mistake is when a nation considers only one of its power elements to be permanent, which definitely played an important role in the past, and ignores the dynamic change that involves most of the power elements.
The third mistake occurs when a nation gives decisive importance to one of its power elements and does not care about the other power elements.
In other words, "The first mistake consists in not reconciling the forces of one nation with the forces of other nations; It consists in harmonizing one power element of one nation with other power elements of the same nation.”
Essay # 8. Classification of States on the basis of Political Power ( Power Based Classification of States):
More than 193 states are active in the international system. On the basis of power, some of these nations are called big nations and some are small nations. According to David Vital, on the basis of the area of a country and its population, it can be decided whether that country is a big or a small nation.
In addition to the category of large and small nations, nations can be divided into four categories on the basis of power. The first category is of the Great Powers. Superpower can be called that country whose policy-makers think that that country alone can decisively influence international politics. The second category is of the secondary powers.
That country will be called a sub-superpower whose policy-makers think that their country can exert some influence on international politics, even if that influence is not decisive. The third category is of Middle Powers.
The nation whose leader understands that his country alone cannot influence international politics and may have to work together with other countries to play the role of an influencer, then it will be called a middle power.
The fourth category is of Small Power. The country's policy-makers believe that their country can neither influence international politics alone nor can it become an influence only with other nations, then it will be called a small power.
The concept of 'superpower' has also been used for the classification of states on the basis of power. This concept came to an end in the Vienna Conference of 1815 and hence it is called the concept of 19th century. On the basis of this concept, nations can be divided into two categories: Great Power and Super Power. Former Soviet Union and America come in the category of greatest powers and France, Britain, China, India, Japan, Germany etc. come in the category of superpowers.
By superpower, we mean a nation that can impose its will on another nation or nations, but those other nations have no influence on it. Before the emergence of superpowers like America and Soviet Union, there were many superpowers in international politics who could 'impose their will' on smaller nations.
Bipolar international politics emerged after the Second World War. The military power of America and Soviet Union has increased so much that it has become necessary to keep them in a special category. This special category is the category of 'greatest power'. China started trying to enter this special category.
According to Ranke, only that country can be called a superpower, which can compete with the combined power of all other countries in the war by remaining in a victorious position. According to this definition, neither the US nor the Soviet Union can be called a superpower because both the countries could not claim that they were fighting against all the other countries of the world on the basis of their personal power only. Have the ability to win.
It is also said that the concept of 'Super Power' is meaningless. Today Britain, France, China do not have the status that America and Soviet Union had in terms of power. Even though Britain and France are members of the Security Council after World War II, they have been unable to play the role of a superpower in international politics.
There has been a huge difference between the power of America and the former Soviet Union on the one hand and the power of Britain and France on the other. After the Second World War, only that nation can be called a superpower which has the ability to impose its will on other nations despite opposition from other nations.
Today only America has this capability, therefore it should be called a Great Power and not a Super Power. We make the mistake of calling Britain and France a superpower because they played a historic role in international politics before the Second World War.
Arginsky in his book 'World Politics' has divided the states into four parts on the basis of power:
i. The Powerful and Satisfied Nation,
II. The Powerful and Dissatisfied,
iii. The Weak and Satisfied and
iv. The Weak and Dissatisfied nation.
Powerful and contented nations are those nations which control the international system. Presently America, England, France, Germany, Italy and Japan can be taken in this category. These nations are satisfied with the present international system.
Other type of nations are powerful but are dissatisfied with the present international system and want radical changes in it. China and India can be placed in this category. Powerful disgruntled nations can start a world war.
The third category of nations are middle powers but are satisfied with the present international system. Canada, Australia, Argentina can be kept in this category. There is no threat to the world order from these states.
In the fourth category come those states which are completely dissatisfied with the present world order but they do not have enough power to change the system. The newly independent countries of Asia and Africa come under this category. Arginsky has classified the states on the basis of power through a suitable diagram.
Essay # 9. 'The Concept of Power Vacuum:
Absence of a super power or withdrawal of a super power in any land, continent or region of the world is to create 'Power-Vacuum'. The presence of a superpower is considered to be an indicator of political stability in that region.
Absence of a superpower leads to a situation of power vacuum, which results in competition, war and political unrest and instability among other powers. After World War II, when Britain decided to withdraw its military fleet from South-East Asia, it was believed that a 'power-void' would arise in this region. Communist China may try to fill this power vacuum.
America's only concern was that the states of this region should not come under the influence of China. For this reason America created the 'SEATO' organization. American presence in Vietnam was a reflection of this spirit.
The Truman Doctrine was based on the concept of 'power vacuum'. The point was that the decline of British influence in the Middle East had created a 'political vacuum', according to the US, and the Soviet Union wanted to take advantage of this situation.
It wanted to end the British influence and establish its dominance in the region itself. Earlier, in the name of helping Turkey and Greece, America itself wanted to enter this region. The Eisenhower theory was also based on this concept. The Suez War of 1956 can be considered as a turning point in the history of West Asia.
This ended forever the residual influence of Britain and France in the region. Seeing the growing Soviet influence in West Asia, there was great concern and dismay in America. America has never accepted that the real problem of this region is nationalism. Therefore, neglecting Arab nationalism, he accepted the theory of power vacuum.
This meant that the withdrawal of British influence left a kind of political vacuum in the region and thus increased the risk of Moscow taking over the space vacated by London. Therefore, to face this situation, on June 5, 1956, President Eisenhower announced a policy regarding West Asia, which is called the Eisenhower Doctrine.
Essay # 10. The Power Concept: Critical Appraisal:
Philosopher Bertrand Russell is the first major thinker who strongly condemned the instrumentality of power in politics. Russell believed that the equality that comes from the distribution of power is more important for the freedom of man than the equality or distribution of wealth.
He believed that the centralization of political power in the state, whether capitalist or communist, is more dangerous for the development of human personality than the centralization of economic power. Bertrand Russell believed that wherever power is used, freedom ends in the same amount. Bertrand Russell supported his arguments against power through a psychological analysis of human nature.
He believed that the increase in the power of the state is as dangerous in the international arena as in the field of domestic politics. It harms those who use it as much as those against whom it is used.
At one place he has written- "The habit of using power strengthens the tendency or passion of competition, for this reason the state in which the power is centralized is more warlike than the state in which it is diffused."
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