Sources of Ancient Indian History in English

 

 (Sources of Ancient Indian History)

Sources of Ancient Indian History 

Dr. R.C. Majumdar is of the opinion: “The aversion of Indians to the writing of history is a great fault of Indian culture. It is not easy to explain the reason for this. Indians established relations with many branches of literature and also gained specialization in many of them, but still they never seriously paid attention to historiography. Alberuni has also expressed almost similar views, namely: “Hindus do not pay much attention to the historical sequence of events. They are very careless in recording the events in chronological order and whenever pressed for historical information, not being able to answer, they start telling a story.”

Historical Sense

Some writers have even said that the people of ancient India did not have any historical sense, but the above idea is not generally accepted now. Scholars like Dr. AB Keith also accept that “there was no lack of historical consciousness among Indians even in ancient times, its proof is obtained from some texts and facts. It would be ridiculous to look for the absence of historical consciousness in Indians by removing their sight from the antiquity and the form of their developed civilization... , But Dr. Keith also says that "History could not get any prominent place in such a vast Sanskrit literature and there was not a single writer in the great age of Sanskrit literature who could be called a critical historian." Dr. Keith has tried to find various reasons for this fact. He is of the view that the way the Iranian invasion of Greece inspired the history of Herodotus, Indian scholars could not get such inspiration from Indian political events. The political events of that time did not affect the people of India so much that the general public had to participate in them. The foreign invasions on India in the first century BC were probably not so important that they could awaken the national feeling among the people. The same thing happened with Alexander, the Greeks, the Parthians, the Sakas, The same can be said about the invasions of Kushans and Hunas. The reason for the detachment of fatalistic Indians was the idea that all events were beyond their intelligence and foresight. He attributed miraculous events to divine karma, Indra-jaal and

Maya-trap accepted. Indian wisdom gives more importance to generality than to particular incidents. He never tried to understand the difference between hearsay and reality. As a result, the sequence of events was completely ignored and no attention was paid to chronology.1 On the contrary, Indian scholars are of the view that the Indians certainly had a historical consciousness. The large variety of historical essays and many other facts prove that historical consciousness was present in ancient Indians. Dr. P.K. Acharya states that sufficient historical information including reliable dates is obtained from the inscriptions of Kalinga kings Kharavela, Rudradaman, Samudragupta, Kannauj emperor Harsha and Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Pala and Sen dynasty kings. From these records the genealogies of the then kings and donors, The actions of kings and the state of charity are revealed. It is known from these inscriptions who were the founders of charitable institutions; Information about the priests who consecrated them is also obtained from them only. The Western Chalukya dynasty kings of Kalyani got information about the early Chalukya dynasty kings of Badami only from the dynastic archives. The Silahara kings of southern Konkan protected their inscriptions and the inscriptions of their rulers, the Rashtrakuta dynasty kings. They compiled and preserved the Rajavalis and genealogies. Grants made by the Eastern Chalukyas Information about the priests who consecrated them is also obtained from them only. The Western Chalukya dynasty kings of Kalyani got information about the early Chalukya dynasty kings of Badami only from the dynastic archives. The Silahara kings of southern Konkan protected their inscriptions and the inscriptions of their rulers, the Rashtrakuta dynasty kings. They compiled and preserved the Rajavalis and genealogies. Grants made by the Eastern Chalukyas Information about the priests who consecrated them is also obtained from them only. The Western Chalukya dynasty kings of Kalyani got information about the early Chalukya dynasty kings of Badami only from the dynastic archives. The Silahara kings of southern Konkan protected their inscriptions and the inscriptions of their rulers, the Rashtrakuta dynasty kings. They compiled and preserved the Rajavalis and genealogies. Grants made by the Eastern Chalukyas

The names of all the kings of the dynasty are given starting with the founder of the dynasty. The Eastern Ganga dynasty kings of Kalinga have also given a detailed description of the then kings in their genealogies. In a long genealogy of Nepal the names of the kings of that country, Dates of reign and accession are given. The genealogies of Orissa give a continuous list of the kings of Kali Yuga up to 3102 BCE. Not only the periods of his reign but also the dates of the main events are given. The Jains have 'Pattavalis' in which all the incidents till the death of Vardhaman Mahavira are written. In the Jagannath Temple of Puri, there are such Bhojpatras in which reliable and sure things have been written regarding the ancient history of India. Many historical dates and other material are found in the forewords and colophons of the literary books collected by Sir RG Bhandarkar and Peterson. Somadeva has written that "he completed his work "Yashastilaka in Chaitra Shak Samvat 881 (959 AD) when Krishnaraja Deva Chalukya was ruling." In "Pampa Bharata" or "Vikramarjuna-Vijaya" composed by Pump, King Arikesarin is mentioned and his last seven years with him. Generations are also mentioned. Jalhan has mentioned Yadav kings like Bhillam, Singhona, Krishna, Mallugi etc. of Devgiri. It is clear from all these things that the ancient Hindus had historical consciousness. Therefore, sufficient material related to ancient history can be obtained. 

(1) Literary Sources

Indian literature is partly religious and partly 

It is worldly. “Rigveda,” “Samveda,” “Yajurveda” and “Atharvaveda” are religious literature. Among these "Rigveda" is the oldest, which provides information related to the political system and history of the Aryans. Commentaries on Vedic verses and codes are found in "Brahmins". These commentaries are in prose. In "Aranyakas" and "Upanishads" a collection of philosophical ideas is found in relation to the soul, the divine and the world. From these, the picture of the religious thoughts of the Aryans appears in front of the reader. In addition to these there are six "Vedangas": "Shiksha", "Astrology", "Kalpa", "Vyakaran", “Nirukta” and “Chhanda”. “Vedangas” were created only to explain the Vedas. The turns of time gave birth to different ideologies. Based on these ideologies, emphasis was laid on the systematic study of the Vedas. This is how the "Sutras" were created. “Kalpasutras” were created to perform rituals i.e. rituals. These are of four types. "Shrautsutra" is the source of knowledge related to Maha-yajna. In "Grihyasutras" the rites related to household were discussed. "Dharmasutra" is related to 'Dharma' or method. In "Shulvasutras"2 the size and construction of Balivedi and Agnivedi have been discussed. Pargiter has written that Vedic literature "lacks historical sense and cannot always be trusted." Dr. S.N. Pradhan is of the opinion that “the evidence obtained from Vedic literature is very valuable and powerful. Most of these are contemporary records or traditions derived from contemporary evidence. Are." However, the evidence from this source must be used with caution.

Needed They should not be trusted too much nor should they be treated with disrespect. After the Vedas comes the name of the great poems of Sanskrit literature, namely "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata". There were few people who understood the Vedas, but these epics were interesting to the common man. These epics have been working as an invaluable treasure since time immemorial by providing story-material for poets, dramatists and storytellers; But these are gross forms of historical events and even the greatest critics cannot deny this fact. Dr. Winternitz's statement is that "'Ramayana' must have been a famous and ancient book even before the completion of the composition of Mahabharata." From these epics, the social, Knowledge of political and economic situation is available. In that era, Aryans had established their very small states on the banks of Ganga-Yamuna and their tributaries. Forests contributed substantially in the formation of these states. Arya was a war-loving race. The power of the states was increasing but till now no big state could be established. The administration was run with the consent of ministers and members. Tyrant and dutiful kings were removed. Sometimes even the kings were given death sentence for their crimes. He used to lead the army in the battle-field. When he died on the battlefield, the army used to run away. The caste system was getting stronger day by day. Civil life was also increasing. The cities were surrounded by ditches and large ramparts. taxes on silver and copper The huge state could not be established. The administration was run with the consent of ministers and members. Tyrant and dutiful kings were removed. Sometimes even the kings were given death sentence for their crimes. He used to lead the army in the battle-field. When he died on the battlefield, the army used to run away. The caste system was getting stronger day by day. Civil life was also increasing. The cities were surrounded by ditches and large ramparts. taxes on silver and copper The huge state could not be established. The administration was run with the consent of ministers and members. Tyrant and dutiful kings were removed. Sometimes even the kings were given death sentence for their crime. He used to lead the army in the battle-field. When he died on the battlefield, the army used to run away. The caste system was getting stronger day by day. Civil life was also increasing. The cities were surrounded by ditches and large ramparts. taxes on silver and copper Civil life was also increasing. The cities were surrounded by ditches and large ramparts. taxes on silver and copper Civil life was also increasing. The cities were surrounded by ditches and large ramparts. taxes on silver and copper

Payment was made in the form of coins or food items. The kings lived in palaces and were always surrounded by courtesans and courtesans. Hunting, drinking, gambling, fighting etc. were his favorite business. The hospitality was at its peak. Bravery was the inspiration of that era. Kshatriya princesses had the right to create Swayamvar. In this period the wife is honored as follows: “She is the better half and true friend. She is the source of virtues and the form of Anand and Lakshmi. He is like a friend in solitude and like a father in counsel. He is the embodiment of rest in the rough road of life. When did the epics take their present form, It is difficult to say anything definite about this. Some scholars estimate that their earlier sections would be very ancient, but later the interpolators must have been added to these ancient sections from time to time. Some writers are of the opinion that the latest interpolations of the epics must have been added in the second century AD. It is also possible that this work was done a little earlier than the estimated time. The original parts of the epics must have been written before the second or third century BC. Narada, Brihaspati, Vishnu, Dharmasastras like Yajnavalkya and Manu's 'Smritis' provide us with ample information regarding the Hindu society. The rules regarding the living of the Hindu society have been made in the scriptures only. In case of violation of these rules, there was also a law of punishment. Dr. Buhler's article states that "Manusmriti" must have been composed between 200 BC and 200 AD. Other memories must have been created only after this. Dr. Winternitz has written that the genealogies given in the Puranas are very helpful to historians and antiquarians in the construction of political history; However, they should be used with utmost care and after investigation. They are invaluable from the point of view of religious history. That's why their study is essential. It is through the Puranas that we can learn about Hinduism, its mythology, idol-worship, theism, pantheism, Bhagwatvatsalya, philosophy, superstitions, festivals, You can study each aspect of the practices and policy. They are not interesting from the literary point of view. Language has been used freely in them. Grammar has been neglected due to being based on tone in poetry. Some western scholars are of the opinion that Puranas have come into existence only in the last thousand years in Sanskrit literature. But this opinion is no longer accepted. Baan Kavi knew the “Puranas” very well. He has written that he had heard the story of "Vayavya Purana" in his village. According to Kumaril Bhatt, the Puranas are the original source of rules and regulations. According to Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya, Puranas are religious and sacred books. Alberuni had sufficient knowledge of the Puranas. He has given a list of eighteen Puranas. He has also quoted many quotes from various Puranas. Dr. Winternitz is of the opinion that the Puranas first came into existence in the first century of the Christian era. The books of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism, written in the first century AD, are very similar to the Puranas.

There is enough similarity between Puranas and "Lalitvistara". The number of Puranas is eighteen but the importance of all is not equal from the historical point of view. As far as sources of history are concerned "Vishnu Purana", "Vayavya Purana", "Matsya Purana", "Brahma Purana" and "Bhavishyat Purana" are important. Each Purana is divided into five episodes: Sarg, Pratisarg, Vansh, Manvantar and Vanshcharit. The students of history have a great need for the fifth episode of the Puranas. The Purana begins with those kings who trace their dynasty to the Sun and the Moon. They describe many such kings who used to rule in 'Madhya Desha'. These give information about the period from the epic era to the advent of the Buddha. Among them are the names of Puru dynasty kings of Hastinapur and Ikshvaku kings of Kosala country. These provide us with detailed material related to the kings of the Shishunaga and Nanda dynasties. Dr. V.A. Smith (VA) Smith) has proved that "Vaishnava Purana" and "Matsya Purana" provide reliable information regarding Maurya dynasty and Andhra and Shishunaga dynasty respectively. "Vayu Purana" gives information about the reign of Chandragupta I. Many Puranas have also given details of low and barbaric genealogies at the end of the genealogy of kings. These barbaric castes were as follows-Abhir, Gardabh, Shak, Yavan, Tushar, Hun etc. The geography of ancient India can also be studied by considering “Puranas” as the basis. Ancient cities are also known through these Puranas. The Puranas also tell us the distance between the different cities. Thus described in the Puranas Hun etc. The geography of ancient India can also be studied by considering “Puranas” as the basis. Ancient cities are also known through these Puranas. The Puranas also tell us the distance between the different cities. Thus described in the Puranas Hun etc. The geography of ancient India can also be studied by considering “Puranas” as the basis. Ancient cities are also known through these Puranas. The Puranas also tell us the distance between the different cities. Thus described in the Puranas

The distance of those cities can be estimated by the information. Somewhere such a description also comes that a certain person started from a certain place in the morning and reached a certain place in the evening. This type of description makes it easy to find out that the distance between the two places mentioned was approximately. ancient cities, They help us to know the ancient names of rivers and mountains. Mr. Dey of Calcutta has thrown enough light on this subject. If you work with patience, you will definitely get the best results. It cannot be denied that the history of ancient India can be understood more deeply with the geographical knowledge of ancient India. Mr. Ann Mukhopadhyay is of the opinion that “Puranas are an important part of the religious literature of the Hindus and together with the Dharmasastras and Tantras are exerting a profound influence on the present religious age of the Hindus. Vedas are studied by those who study ancient things and philosophers study Upanishads, but every orthodox Hindu must have knowledge of Puranas. It is a different matter whether this knowledge is directly or traditionally, But it is necessary that he can refine his conduct or behavior with mythological knowledge and can perform worldly and spiritual duties. Dr. Pradhan states that “The Puranas claim to tell us the history of ancient India. They tell the genealogies of kings from the "Rigveda" period itself. Along with this, they also tell which kings ruled India in ancient times.

Which part did he rule and which states he established. Somewhere the description of the courageous and extraordinary actions of kings and sages is also found. Full details of wars, famous events and valuable contemporary events are also written. Not giving importance to the information mentioned in Puranas has become the trend of today's scholars. The genealogies mentioned in the Puranas were fabricated by some extremely sharp minded persons on the inspiration of the then kings. In any case, this notion cannot be encouraged. The Puranas claim to be truth-tellers and what was their selfish means in telling such lies? As for the kings about whom he has written, they were dead before these authors. So this hypothesis cannot be proved, Because the creation of such long and huge genealogies on the basis of imagination does not remain rational. The Sutas were very keen to preserve the mythological material and the Puranas. So definitely the Puranas must have been preserved and transmitted in their original form. Probably the genealogies of the ancient kings have been very seriously studied and analyzed and they have also been protected by the patrons. We should neither be credulous nor prejudiced while studying the Puranas. We should take the middle way and accept only that fact which is reasonable and fair. Smith is of the opinion that "the historian making a discovery of the antiquity of a nation must accept as fact the literary tradition of that period". have been studied and analyzed and also protected by conservators. We should neither be credulous nor prejudiced while studying the Puranas. We should take the middle way and accept only that fact which is reasonable and fair. Smith is of the opinion that "the historian making a discovery of the antiquity of a nation must accept as fact the literary tradition of that period". have been studied and analyzed and also protected by conservators. We should neither be credulous nor prejudiced while studying the Puranas. We should take the middle way and accept only that fact which is reasonable and fair. Smith is of the opinion that "the historian making a discovery of the antiquity of a nation must accept as fact the literary tradition of that period".

It should be done, but it would be a mistake to give importance to literary tradition in front of contemporary evidence, because the events proved by evidence are stronger and more acceptable than tradition. Research work in the mythological field has been done in full swing. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition by Pargiter, in addition to several essays on the Puranas) and Dynasties of the Kali Age are very important material. There are also some serious errors in the Puranas. In these, history has been mixed with folk-talks and myths. Mythological tales can be called religious, but they can never be called historical. The basis of the kings mentioned in these stories is mostly imagination. They cannot be confirmed by any other reliable source. At some places the mythological stories do not match with each other. Regarding the dynastic tradition, Dr. Altekar says that the Puranas do not tell about the names of all the kings and emperors that come in this list, what was the relation of the king who sat on the throne later with the first king. The Puranas are silent about their mutual relationship,

In A History of Sanskrit Literature, Dr. Keith has said as follows: “The Puranas, as they are available now-a-days, contain more descriptions of religious and social conditions and court poets. Therefore, this type of material will be considered unimportant. The names and dates, which are given in the form of a list in the Puranas, when presented in front of other reliable facts, they appear to be very erroneous. The reason is that in the period in which these genealogies were prepared, the purpose of the writers of that period was to please the kings rather than to gather material for history. Therefore, there can be little hope of getting anything useful from these Puranas. It is true that we have never tried to read the Puranas properly, But the question is, can there be any hope of getting anything useful by studying the Puranas in this way? This view of Dr. Keith is clearly biased. In fact, if seen, it has to be said that Dr. Keith did not pay attention to the great benefits of the material which scholars have presented to us after great efforts. Dr. Keith also seems to be suffering from the same disease of partiality which has been going on since the time of Lord Macaulay. There is still time for historians to wash away the filth of partiality and rise above this insignificance and accept him as the source of the history of ancient India. Which has been going on since the time of Lord Macaulay. There is still time for historians to wash away the filth of partiality and rise above this insignificance and accept him as the source of the history of ancient India. Which has been going on since the time of Lord Macaulay. There is still time for historians to wash away the filth of partiality and rise above this insignificance and accept him as the source of the history of ancient India. 

Buddhist Literature

Sufficient historical information is obtained from the Buddhist literature for the period before Bimbisara's ascension to the throne. this literature many

Throws light on such facts, which have been neglected by the Brahmin writers. Buddhist literature is found in Pali and Sanskrit languages. The literature of Pali is divided into the following three parts— (1) 'Vinaya Pitaka' (2) 'Sutta Pitaka'; (3) 'Abhidhamma Pitaka'. In 'Vinaya Pitaka' there are rules related to discipline for the residents of the monastery. The following books come under this - 'Sutta Vibhag', 'Khandak' and 'Parivar'. The essence of Buddha's teachings is given in 'Sutta Pitaka'. The place of this Pitaka is highest among the Pitakas. In this Digha, Nikaya, Majjhim Nikaya, Joint Nikaya, There are Anguttara Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya. Abhidhamma Pitaka has seven books. In these, the ideas of Buddhism have been discussed in a classical manner. Apart from the monastic discipline, a substantial literature has also been created in the Pali language. The best book of this literature is "Milinda Panha". There are questions of Maharaj Milind in this. It is named after the Greek king Menander. This text is similar to the story of Plato. Its beautiful and charming language is its attraction. In this, many problems and controversial topics of Buddhism have been highlighted. This is one of the best texts in Pali language. The best and ablest critic of Buddhism in Pali language, Known as Buddha Ghosh. 'Dipavamsa' (Dipavamsa) and 'Mahavamsa' (Mahavamsa) are the historical texts of Lanka. “Lalitvistara” and “Vaipulya Sutras” are composed in Sanskrit language. Sufficient knowledge related to Buddhism is obtained in these. The life of Mahatma Buddha is very interesting in "Lalitvistara".

Presented in style. The rules of Buddhism are described in the nine books of "Vaipulya Sutra". The neti episode contains the teachings of the Buddha. The Pitaka teachings explain the four truths of Buddhism. It is said that both these books were written by Mahakachan. Buddha Ghosh lived in Sri Lanka in the fifth century. He wrote commentaries on all the Tripatakas (Pali language). He is famous for his Visudhing (Visuddhimagga). Other famous commentators were Buddhadatta, Ananda, Dhammapala, Upasena, Kashyapa, Dhammashri, Mahaswami. Nagarjuna was a great teacher of Buddhism. Wrote Shatasahasrika Prajnapramita and Madhyamika Sutras from him. Aryadev was also a great writer. Asanga was the author of the Mahayana Sutralankara. Vasubandhu was the author of Abhidharma Kosha. Dignag, Chandragomin and Shantidev were great scholars. Ashvaghosha was the author of Buddha Charitra, Sutralankar, Saundarya Anand Kavya and Mahayana Shraddhotpada. 

nativesdescribes the previous births of the Buddha. According to the followers of Buddhism, Mahatma Buddha had to take many births before being born in the Shakya dynasty, but he could become Buddha in this birth only. About 549 Jataka tales have been published in a combined form. These stories have an important place because they are transmitters of the life and thoughts of their era. Such evidence is found through these stories, which fulfill the material received from Brahmins. They can be investigated only in the light of these evidences. By these castes, the religion of the then society, The picture of political and economic condition is seen. The Jatakas are said to have been composed in the second or third century BCE. Jataka stories are inscribed on the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut. These stupas were built in the third or second century BC. But according to Buddhist tradition, these stories are from long before the birth of Buddha. Dr. Winternitz has written that “The importance of the Jataka stories is invaluable. It is not only because they are part of literature and art; Their importance lies in guiding the Indian civilization of the third century BC. Jain Literature—Historical material is also found in sufficient quantity in Jain literature. In relation to Jain history, Prof. Jacobi and Dr. Banarsidas have done enough research. Jains are spending a lot of money on the publication of their literature. Therefore, it can be expected that on the completion of this work, profitable material can be obtained. Visakhadatta-Krit "Mudrarakshasa" ("Mudrarakshasa" of Visakhadatta)—This book describes Chandragupta Maurya and his guru Chanakya. In this book, it has been mentioned that for what reasons the Nanda dynasty fell and how Chandragupta Maurya established his dynasty. Sufficient historical material is also obtained from Chanakya's "Arthashastra". The author of "Arthashastra" has not only described the administration,

Patanjali's "Mahabhashya" and Panini's "Ashtadhyayi" - these books are grammar of Sanskrit language, but in these also mention of Maharajas, democracy and political events are found. Our knowledge of ancient India is supplemented by many literary and other writings. Harisena was the court poet of Samudragupta. His poem inscribed on the Pillar of Allahabad throws light on the bold and extraordinary deeds of Samudragupta. Kalidas's works named "Shakuntal" and "Meghdoot" also throw light on the then social life. The social, religious, economic, Political and cultural information has not been fully exploited. This has probably happened because nothing can be said authentically about the period of creation of these books. As a result, there is a possibility of loss by using the information related to them. The plays “Swapnavasavadatta” and “Pratigya Yogdharayan” written by Mahakavi Bhasa give us an idea of ​​the political condition of India during the reign of King Chand Pradyot of Ujjain. The Sanskrit plays "Nagananda", "Ratnavali" and "Priyadarshika" written probably by Harsha describe the history of the seventh century AD. Some writers have made their patrons the subject of their poetry. Baan poet wrote "Harshacharit". This book is a part of poetry as well as a life-philosophy of Harsh. This book of political history The plays "Ratnavali" and "Priyadarshika" describe the history of the seventh century AD. Some writers have made their patrons the subject of their poetry. Baan poet wrote "Harshacharit". This book is a part of poetry as well as a life-philosophy of Harsh. This book of political history The plays "Ratnavali" and "Priyadarshika" describe the history of the seventh century AD. Some writers have made their patrons the subject of their poetry. Baan poet wrote "Harshacharit". This book is a part of poetry as well as a life-philosophy of Harsh. This book of political history The plays "Ratnavali" and "Priyadarshika" describe the history of the seventh century AD. Some writers have made their patrons the subject of their poetry. Baan poet wrote "Harshacharit". This book is a part of poetry as well as a life-philosophy of Harsh. This book of political history The plays "Ratnavali" and "Priyadarshika" describe the history of the seventh century AD. Some writers have made their patrons the subject of their poetry. Baan poet wrote "Harshacharit". This book is a part of poetry as well as a life-philosophy of Harsh. This book of political history

Along with being suitable from the point of view, throws light on the religious, political, social and economic condition of the seventh century AD. Vakpati and Bihlan have given details of the extraordinary and adventurous deeds of Yashovarma and Vikramaditya in "Gaudhavho" and "Vikramandeva Charit". The life-story of Maharaja Rampal of Bengal can be traced from a literary text "Ramcharit". Apart from these, many works related to life-character are also available and they are as follows- “Kumarpal-Charit” of Jai Singh, “Kumarpal-Charit” of Hemchandra, “Hammir Kavya” of Nayachandra, “Navsahasank-Charit” of Padmagupt, Ballal "Banquet" of Chandbardai's "Prithviraj Charit" and "Prithviraj-Vijay" by an unknown author etc. Although valuable historical material is found in the above books, still these books cannot be accepted as pure and authentic history. The reason is that the purpose of the writers of these texts was to praise the kings and not to present historical material. The life and times of the kings are not fully known from these texts. In this regard, the authors of these texts have themselves accepted that the purpose of these texts is to demonstrate literary ingenuity and imagination and not to present history.

Kalhana's "Rajtarangini" (Rajtarangini of Kalhana)

This book was written in 1149-50 AD. Dr. Majumdar is of the opinion that "Rajtarangini" is the only book of ancient Indian literature which can be called the historical book of ancient India in reality. the author 

Not only tried to collect material from historical books and other sources, but also tried to explain the rules of history writing in the beginning of the book. According to Kalhana, he read historical books of 11 authors before his time and studied the ordinances of kings. These ordinances were inscriptions related to grants. The portion of the history of Kashmir written by Kalhana before the seventh century is not reliable. Among the ancient Indian authors, Kalhana is the only author who has written about Kanishka. From "Rajtarangini" reliable history of Kashmir is obtained from the seventh century onwards. The author has given a detailed introduction of each king in chronological order. As he comes closer to his time in his book, the amount of history increases in his book and he presents a complete picture of that time. It is worth noting here that after his death, Jonraj and Other authors continued his work. Kalhana had definite ideas about good government. His ideal was a powerful king who exercised strict control over his subordinates but was kind to his subjects and respected their feelings. He had to choose his advisors carefully and heed their advice. At many places, Kalhana has criticized the Daras (Damaras) i.e. small chieftains who created anarchy and troubles in Kashmir. Kalhana was a bitter critic of bureaucracy. He wrote about him: "The crab kills his father, the termite eats his mother, but the ungrateful Kayastha (government servant) destroys all when he becomes powerful." Expresses disappointment towards his country and people at many places: “After being a pure woman, this land has become a prostitute by reaching the hands of the insolent. Thereafter only a powerless person would wish to achieve success through conspiracy. It seems appropriate to give historical texts of Gujarat here. The famous texts written in this regard are: “Rasmala” and “Kirti Kaumudi” written by Someshwara-pranat “Sukrit Sankirtana” written by Arisimha, “Prabandha Chintamani” written by Merutunga, “Prabandha Kosha” written by Rajasekhara, “Prabandha Kosha” written by Jayasimha Hammir mad-mardan”, and so on. These scripture stories, There are repositories of historical subtexts. The political history of India after the 2nd century AD is mentioned several times in the Dravidian language. The Tamil Sangam texts of the 2nd and 3rd centuries provide a lot of useful information about South Indian culture. There are many such poems in Kannada and Telugu which give useful information about the history of the South. Similarly, there are also local histories of Nepal, but their facts have not been collected properly. 

(2) Archeology

This knowledge has given enough contribution in gathering the history of ancient India. Therefore, its importance cannot be reduced in any way. It has been only a few years since the Indian Archaeological Department came into existence, but the progress that this science has made in this short period is definitely praiseworthy. This knowledge may have been started by the Europeans, But now even Indian scholars are not behind anyone in this direction. The study of Indian antiquities was started by Sir William Jones. It was Sir William Jones who founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1774. Collected a large number of different inscriptions. But due to lack of knowledge of the script, they could not be read. This problem was solved after the research (decipherment) of Brahmi script in 1837 by Jones Prinsep. After this discovery the work of reading became easy and as a result scholars have done a lot of work in this direction. Fergusson, Cunningham, Dr. Rajendra Lal Mitra, Dr. Bhau Daji etc. have worked in this direction. The most cooperation in this direction is from General Sir Cunningham, Who was appointed to the post of Archaeological Surveyor in 1862. He has presented the geography related information of ancient India on the basis of personal research. He has collected a substantial amount of Indian coins. Excavation work was started at mines like Gaya, Bharhut, Sanchi, Sarnath, Takshashila. Lord Curzon established the Department of Archeology and Dr. Marshall was appointed to the post of Director General of the Department of Archeology. Dr. Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner were appointed as Adjunct Scholars. Under the direction and supervision of Dr. Marshall, an area of ​​25 square miles of Taxila was excavated. Excavation work was started at quarries like Taxila. Lord Curzon established the Department of Archeology and Dr. Marshall was appointed to the post of Director General of the Department of Archeology. Dr. Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner were appointed as Adjunct Scholars. Under the direction and supervision of Dr. Marshall, an area of ​​25 square miles of Taxila was excavated. Excavation work was started at quarries like Taxila. Lord Curzon established the Department of Archeology and Dr. Marshall was appointed to the post of Director General of the Department of Archeology. Dr. Vogel, Dr. Stein, Dr. Bloch and Dr. Spooner were appointed as Adjunct Scholars. Under the direction and supervision of Dr. Marshall, an area of ​​25 square miles of Taxila was excavated. 

And as a result many useful information was obtained. The ancient city of Pataliputra was excavated by Dr. Spooner, but due to water-discharge, much information could not be obtained. Dr. Spooner excavated the land related to Buddha of Nalanda University and as a result special information could be obtained. In the year 1922-23 Dr. RD Banerjee had started the mining work of Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Similar work was done in Harappa also. The materials obtained from both these places were collected and Sir John Marshall composed a huge treatise on the Indus Valley Civilization. Aurel Stein did substantial work in this direction in Balochistan, Kashmir and Chinese Turkistan. N.G. Majumdar and Dr. Mackay have also written a lot about the Indus Valley Civilization. Even today, archaeological work is being done in different parts of India.

(a) Inscriptions

Under the heading of archaeology, the information obtained through inscriptions, seals and monuments can be described. Inscriptions are an object of great importance in historical research. They are inscribed on metals and stones. Therefore their authenticity cannot be doubted. The information printed on these can be used without hesitation. The possibility of doubt remains due to interjections added by known and unknown authors in the books. Hence it is clear that there cannot be any kind of doubt in the authenticity of the inscriptions. These inscriptions reveal the writing style of that time.

Let's go Their age can also be estimated by looking at their form and shape. Some information can also be obtained from their condition. Although the difficulties of reading and deciphering the inscriptions have now been overcome, the script of the Indus Valley still remains a matter of mystery. The inscriptions can be divided into several headings on the basis of subject; Commercial, elusive, religious and didactic, administrative, praiseworthy, votive article or devotional, offering related, praiseworthy and literary. Samples of trade inscriptions can be seen on the seals of the Indus Valley. Some of these impressions may have been treated as stamps on trade knots and pottery. “The small inscriptions on the seals bear only the name of their owner, But on the inscriptions of bigger impressions than these, the name of the owner along with the titles is mentioned. Probably these raids were used for foreign trade by sea. Corporations (Nigamas) and guilds (Srenis) had extraordinary power to make their own currencies. So definitely they must have used these raids to complete the business activities. It is true that their descriptions given on perishable things have now been destroyed due to wear and tear. By certain authentic indications it can be said that these raids were used for trade and this information comes from the Mandsaur inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarma. His details are now destroyed by wear and tear. By certain authentic indications it can be said that these raids were used for trade and this information comes from the Mandsaur inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarma. His details are now destroyed by wear and tear. By certain authentic indications it can be said that these raids were used for trade and this information comes from the Mandsaur inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarma.

Mantras etc. are written in illusory inscriptions. Their samples can be seen in the currencies of the Indus Valley. “There are some impressions on baked clay and pottery. They also look mechanical to some extent. Some stamps are tablets. They have been pierced in the middle. Perhaps holes have been made for hanging with clothes etc. Apart from this, the back side of the plates which have a stamp on one side is completely clean. It is clear from this that they were not attached to anything and hence they could not have been used for trade. There are some substances which have stamps on many sides, they must have been used only as talismans and instruments etc. Apart from this, they cannot be used for any other work. The meaning of these impressions could not yet be clearly read. So until they can be read then it is difficult to fathom their subject. The names of the deities are inscribed on them and those deities are represented in the form of animals. There are pictures of animals like deer, buffalo, Brahmi bull, elephant, goat, rabbit, monkey, human, small horned bull and lion etc. on these talismans. Some of the deities are inscribed as Chand, Yamraj, Shankar, Indra, Brahma and Durga. It is worth noting that Yantras and Mantras have been written on metal and Bhojpatra etc. Religious and moral descriptions are found in religious and didactic inscriptions. Some seals and plaques from the Indus Valley were used for worship, not as talismans. Inscribed as Brahma and Durga. It is worth noting that Yantras and Mantras have been written on metal and Bhojpatra etc. Religious and moral descriptions are found in religious and didactic inscriptions. Some seals and plaques from the Indus Valley were used for worship, not as talismans. Inscribed as Brahma and Durga. It is worth noting that Yantras and Mantras have been written on metal and Bhojpatra etc. Religious and moral descriptions are found in religious and didactic inscriptions. Some seals and plaques from the Indus Valley were used for worship, not as talismans.

The religious and didactic inscriptions of Ashoka are the best examples of their kind. Ashoka's edicts are called by the name of 'Dhamma Lipi'. Ashoka's orders are also specimens of administrative inscriptions. An example of one of his inscriptions is as follows—“For the propagation of Dhamma and other works in my kingdom every five years, Will leave for Rajjuk and regional tour. The Sohgaur copper plate of 3rd century BC is a good example of administrative inscriptions. The inscription of Rudradaman I inscribed on the Junagarh rock also provides considerable administrative material. Articles inscribed on copper plates received in sufficient numbers from north and south present maximum number of administrative information and the information received by these articles is of great importance. The copper-plate inscriptions of Harsha's Banskheda can also be presented in this aspect. Appreciative inscriptions are important from political point of view. 

These usually include the following:

The genealogy of the king, his name, the former character of the king, the then kingdoms with whom he fought, the inter-state relations, the state system, political ideals, the personal qualities of the king, his patronage, his charity and generosity, allegorical mythological allusions. In these inscriptions, the attitude of the authors to exaggerate the praise of the kings is inappropriate.

Praise-related inscriptions can be divided into two parts-pure praises and praises with other types. Ashoka's orders are of his own kind. The Hathi cave inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga belongs to the first category. There is pure praise in this. In this, the details of Kharavela's courageous deeds are found in chronological order. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta also comes in this category. The number of inscriptions giving praise as well as other material is high. In almost every document, a lot is found in relation to the king and his ancestors. Nasik Cave Inscription of Ushavdat, Junagadh Edict of Rudradaman I, Nasik Cave Edict of Gautami Balashri, Mehrauli Loh Pillar Edict of Chandra, Junagarh Edict of Skandagupta, Bhitari Edict of Skandagupta, Mandsaur Edict of Yashodharman, Ishan Verma Aihole inscription of the time of Pulakeshin II, Talagund inscription of Shanti Varma's time, Nagarjunikonda's inscription of Virpurushadatta, Kumaragupta II and Mandsaur inscription of Bandhuvarma's time, etc. increase our knowledge. We have a substantial number of votive inscriptions. The plates which have been obtained from the Indus Valley may have inscriptions of this category. The Piprava inscription is the memorial casket of Mahatma Buddha. The Besnagar Garuda Pillar Inscription of Heliodorus also belongs to this category. Several dedicatory inscriptions introduce the establishment of idols and temples. Kumaragupta II in this regard etc. increase our knowledge. We have a substantial number of votive inscriptions. The plates which have been obtained from the Indus Valley may have inscriptions of this category. The Piprava inscription is the memorial casket of Mahatma Buddha. The Besnagar Garuda Pillar Inscription of Heliodorus also belongs to this category. Several dedicatory inscriptions introduce the establishment of idols and temples. Kumaragupta II in this regard etc. increase our knowledge. We have a substantial number of votive inscriptions. The plates which have been obtained from the Indus Valley may have inscriptions of this category. The Piprava inscription is the memorial casket of Mahatma Buddha. The Besnagar Garuda Pillar Inscription of Heliodorus also belongs to this category. Several dedicatory inscriptions introduce the establishment of idols and temples. Kumaragupta II in this regard

And it seems appropriate to mention the Mandsor inscription of the time of Bandhuvarma, the Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta and the Aihole inscription of the time of Pulakeshin II. The number of inscriptions related to gifts is immense. Both the king and the subjects have got ample opportunities in this regard. Some inscriptions indicate that caves and other buildings were donated for the residence of saints and sages. Some inscriptions refer to donations in the form of permanent funds. With this money, the poor and Brahmins were maintained and lamps were lit in the temples. In some inscriptions temples, monasteries, Donation of land and village to schools and Brahmins is inscribed. Praiseworthy inscriptions give the address of birth-death and other important events. Ashoka's Rubhmindei inscription is as follows - "The Emperor Priyadarshi, beloved of the gods, himself came here many years after adopting Buddhism and worshiped here. Since Shakya Muni Buddha was born here, he built a large stone wall and pillar there. A long series of monumental inscriptions gives the address of the Sheelahara king of Kolhapur, the Chalukya king of Kalyani and the Rashtrakutas and Yadavas etc. The purpose of some of the inscriptions appears to be literary. In these types of inscriptions, details related to poetry and drama are found. A copper plate has been obtained from the Mahanirvana Stupa of Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, which has thirteen lines written on it and describes the Udana-Sutta of Buddha. So there he built a big stone wall and pillar. A long series of monumental inscriptions gives the address of the Sheelahara king of Kolhapur, the Chalukya king of Kalyani and the Rashtrakutas and Yadavas etc. The purpose of some of the inscriptions appears to be literary. In these types of inscriptions, details related to poetry and drama are found. A copper plate has been obtained from the Mahanirvana Stupa of Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, which has thirteen lines written on it and describes the Udana-Sutta of Buddha. So there he built a big stone wall and pillar. A long series of monumental inscriptions gives the address of the Sheelahara king of Kolhapur, the Chalukya king of Kalyani and the Rashtrakutas and Yadavas etc. The purpose of some of the inscriptions appears to be literary. In these types of inscriptions, details related to poetry and drama are found. A copper plate has been obtained from the Mahanirvana Stupa of Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, which has thirteen lines written on it and describes the Udana-Sutta of Buddha.

Apart from stone and metal, articles have also been found on other materials. Ashoka tells that he got his orders inscribed in stones and rocks so that they could remain for a long time. Texts written on stone are found on rock pillars, rocks, bases of idols, back parts of idols, edges and lids of vases, caskets, tripartite crystals, walls of temples, pillar bases, caves etc. Copper metal was mostly used in articles. Inscriptions written on copper plates are known as copper plate, copper plate, copper rule, It was called the Government Letter etc. At some places, according to the subject, they were also called donation letters. It is to be noted that land grants were often inscribed on copper plates and given to the donee to satisfy the requirement of the charter. Fa-hien states that he found copper plates in many Buddhist monasteries that mentioned land grants. Some of them were from the time of Buddha. The research of Sohgaur's Maurya period copper plates supports Fahyan's statement. Hiuen Tsang states that Kanishka called a Buddhist assembly and this assembly prepared three commentaries which were inscribed on copper plates. Stupas were made on these copper plates by keeping them in stone boxes. It is also said that the Vedic commentary of Sayana was also inscribed on copper plates. Samples of some such books are also found in the British Museum, Whose pages are not of paper but of copper. Till the sixth century AD, the use of copper-plates was often reduced for writing work, but in the coming

They were used again in six centuries. These copper plates were of various types in thickness and size. Some of these were so thin that they could be easily folded and some were very thick. The size of these copper plates used to be small or big according to the subject written on them. Sometimes the documents were not inscribed on a single copper plate but were inscribed on several plates. In such a situation, with the help of small rings, those copper sheets were joined and given the form of a book which could be opened easily. Adequate margins were left around these copper-plates. 

(b) Numismatics

The study of Indian coins also throws light on the history of ancient India. The Numismatic Society of India is doing very useful work in this direction. We have collected a variety of coins obtained from different parts of India, which give ample help in understanding the ancient history of India. These currencies are of metals like gold, silver and copper. Currencies help us in building the history of the country. By giving us the introduction of the rule, it tells us that when and in which part of India it ruled. Sometimes we also come to know about the existence of different kings from these coins only. Thus it is clear that in the absence of these coins those kings would have remained unknown. The biggest advantage of these coins is that on the basis of the information received from them, the authenticity of the details told by other sources of history, for example, the Puranas, is known. to decide chronology 

They help us too. The coins tell the year in which they were made. From the receipt of coins, it can be known that which king ruled for how long. From these, the date of the king's accession to the throne and death can be estimated. The coins have helped us to know the exact dates of Samudragupta. The different places of receipt of the coins reveal the extent of the kingdom of the king related to them. The abundance of Roman coins found in India suggests that at some point there was considerable trade between India and the Roman Empire. From these, the economic condition of the Indians and their going across the ocean is known. Pictures of kings are also inscribed on these coins. On their basis, assumptions can be made about the head dress of those kings. Sometimes these coins also reveal the entertainment of the kings and their favorite business. of the country with these currencies Economic status can be assessed. If people deal with gold and silver currencies, then definitely their economic condition will be good, but on the contrary, if they deal with only copper currencies or they have more copper currencies than gold and silver, then it is clear that His financial condition was not very good. The decrease in the value of the currencies of a place also gives us an indication that the country was going through an extraordinary situation. The Gupta dynasty's coins were not at their peak at the time of the Hunas' invasion of India. The symbols inscribed on the Gupta coins show how much enthusiasm they had for Hinduism. From the seals we get authentic information regarding the history of ancient India and this authenticity cannot be denied in any way. But on the contrary, if they deal with only copper currencies or have more copper currencies than gold and silver, then it is clear that their economic condition was not very good. The decrease in the value of the currencies of a place also gives us an indication that the country was going through an extraordinary situation. The Gupta dynasty's coins were not at their peak at the time of the Hunas' invasion of India. The symbols inscribed on the Gupta coins show how much enthusiasm they had for Hinduism. From the seals we get authentic information regarding the history of ancient India and this authenticity cannot be denied in any way.

There is no possibility of falsification. The coins were made by the kings or class. Hence the idea that they were coined to deceive the people is futile. On the coins of ancient India, there are pictures or signs in place of mythology. Sometimes these coins were cast in moulds. There were very few occasions when symbols were imprinted on pieces of metal. This was considered to be the guarantee of their authenticity and value. Due to non-inscribed mythology, not much information is obtained from these coins. After the Greek invasion of India, the names of the kings were also inscribed on the coins. The Indo-Bactrian kings issued a large number of coins. The lands of Punjab and the North-Western Frontier were under these kings. These coins featured fine art and had a great deal of influence on Indian coins. The Indians put the portrait of the king on the currency and Started copying the name. It is known from the coins of Greece that about 30 kings and queens of Greece ruled in India. Ancient authors recognize only four or five of these. If these coins were not available, then we would have remained unknown to these kings forever. The coins of the Scythians and Parthians are not of such high quality, yet they provide sufficient historical information. On the basis of these coins, a little information about the history of many kings has been obtained. Without them, even this much would not have been known. In the Saka era, a group of Scythians came and settled in Gujarat and Kathiawar. The people of this party made currencies. The names of the king and his father are found written on these coins. On the basis of these postures, the history of three hundred years of western satraps has been known. The Kushanas also produced a considerable amount of coins. Mirta kings of Panchal Pradesh and Malava and Yaudheya dynasty kings The knowledge of existence is also obtained from these postures only. The seals of the Shatavahana kings support the content described by the Puranas. The seals of the Gupta dynasty also provide useful information. The coins of Samudragupta have a very important place in this area. Detailed information is received from them in this regard. These will be described at the appropriate place. After the Gupta period, not much historical information is obtained from Indian coins. VA Smith and Rapson have written that the printed coins tell in their silent language that the person who made them was not an officer. Smith is of the view that the coins were made by guilds or goldsmiths; It was a matter of course that these people had to take permission from the kings for the manufacture of coins. The main part of the coins was minted by the coin-makers, But on its back side there were signatures of the king or the controller. Rapson says that on the obverse side of the coin was the mark of the goldsmith, and on its reverse side was the mark of the place from where it came out as currency. But modern research has proved that the printed coins were prepared by the public authority. Such coins have been found in Pataliputra. dr

Jaiswal estimates that these coins belong to the period of Chandragupta Maurya. Numerous coins are now available in government museums. Some municipal museums are also moving in this direction. Some people have also privately collected different types of currencies. A thorough study of all these is a source of additional evidence. 

(c) Monuments

Ancient reliable information is obtained from stone, metal and terra-cotta idols and pieces of cosmetics and ornaments and pottery etc. Such historical facts have come to light from the excavation of the land of Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Taxila. Those who were earlier in darkness. This excavation has changed the history of ancient India. For example, only after the excavation of the Indus Valley, it has been said that there was a civilization in India even before the arrival of the Aryans. Information related to the Kushans has come to light from the excavation of Taxila. By studying the sculpture there, information about Gandhara art is obtained. Excavations of the ancient sites of Pataliputra throw light on the Mauryan capital. Even today there is evidence from the places called Ankorwat in Cambodia and Barabodor in Java that Indian culture had spread there in ancient times. Deogarh (Jhansi) and Bhitargaon (Kanpur) both throw light on Gupta art. The excavation of Sarnath has increased our knowledge about Buddhism and Ashoka. Excavations in Chinese Turkistan and Balochistan under Stein's supervision show that India had a very close relationship with these places. Was. It is expected that good information related to history will be obtained through archeology in future also. 

(3) Foreign Accounts

We also get useful information from foreign writers. Herodotus and Ctesias obtained information from Iranian sources. Herodotus has thrown enough light on the Iranian and Greek invasions and Indo-Iranian relations in his history. He gives us information and knowledge of the political situation in North-Western India of his time. He is of the opinion that the land area of ​​northern India was a part of the empire of Darius. This land area was the twentieth province of his empire. The account written by Ctesias is fictitious. Arrian has given a detailed account of Alexander's invasion of India. This description depends on the authenticity of Nearchos, the head of Alexander's navy. Skylax wrote a book. He has given a detailed account of the journey of Sindh and the Gulf of Iran. In the context of the description of this journey, he had sufficient knowledge of the events of India. Has provided. Onesicritus also participated in the campaign. He had written a book about India. But Strabo did not accept it as true. Various Greek emperors sent ambassadors to India named Megasthenes, Deimachus and Dionysius. Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He 

A book named "Indika" was written in relation to India. The original book has been lost, but it can be inferred from the parts of "Indika" presented by later authors in their books, what Megasthenes had written in relation to India. McCrindle has translated those received quotes into the English language. They are very useful for the student of Indian History. There are some subjects on which Megasthenes has given detailed information. Deimachus was sent from the court of Syria to the court of Bindusara or Amitrachates. Dionysius was sent from the court of Egypt by order of Ptolemy. The accounts written by Deimachus and Dionysius have been completely destroyed. Very few quotes from his books have come down to us, which are of little importance in their own right. Patrocles, Who was the governor of the provinces between the Caspian Sea and the Indus River under Seleucus and Antiochos I, gave a description of India and other countries. Strabo has accepted the description of the above mentioned author as true. The Greek author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea traveled to the coasts of India around 80 AD and wrote a description of their trade and ports. From this book one gets the knowledge of sea expeditions of ancient Indians. In the second century AD, Ptolemy wrote a book on Indian geography. Although his knowledge of Indian geography was not impeccable, yet he has provided us with a lot of invaluable information. Details of India and other countries have been given. Strabo has accepted the description of the above mentioned author as true. The Greek author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea traveled to the coasts of India around 80 AD and wrote a description of their trade and ports. From this book one gets the knowledge of sea expeditions of ancient Indians. In the second century AD, Ptolemy wrote a book on Indian geography. Although his knowledge of Indian geography was not impeccable, yet he has provided us with a lot of invaluable information. Details of India and other countries have been given. Strabo has accepted the description of the above mentioned author as true. The Greek author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea traveled to the coasts of India around 80 AD and wrote a description of their trade and ports. From this book one gets the knowledge of sea expeditions of ancient Indians. In the second century AD, Ptolemy wrote a book on Indian geography. Although his knowledge of Indian geography was not impeccable, yet he has provided us with a lot of invaluable information.

In the first century AD, Pliny wrote a description about the animals, plants and minerals of India. It is worth noting that the details given by the Greeks should be used with caution. The reason is that there might have been some kind of error in his knowledge of India. It is possible that they may not have taken the trouble to see the country as a whole and thus important facts may not have come to the fore. He probably did not know Indian languages. Therefore, it may be that due to lack of knowledge of languages, they have been unable to get proper knowledge about India. Therefore, it is more likely that he may have seen everything from Greek point of view and not from Indian point of view. In this way, it can be expected that the details related to India given by the Greeks have been less close to the truth or they have been written in an exaggerated manner. Dr. R.C. Majumdar has written: “The result of all this discussion is that we must put out of our minds the idea that the accounts of the Puranic authors deserve to be considered true or authentic and are based on verifiable facts. The writers before Strabo in particular were not generally critical. He is therefore less reliable than Strabo and the Aryans, whose views were more mature and their vision sharper. They challenged the validity of ludicrous descriptions or paranormal theories that earlier writers had taken to be absolutely true. Most of them may have deliberately lied Less reliable than those whose views were more mature and their vision more acute. They challenged the validity of ludicrous descriptions or paranormal theories that earlier writers had taken to be absolutely true. Most of them may have deliberately lied Less reliable than those whose views were more mature and their vision more acute. They challenged the validity of ludicrous descriptions or paranormal theories that earlier writers had taken to be absolutely true. Most of them may have deliberately lied

May not have spoken or distorted the facts but may have been misguided due to incomplete knowledge of Indian language, customs, wrong reports of Indian advertisers or fictions or similes of Indian literature. We can consider them when judging their moral character, but they should not change our view of the reliability of their descriptions. Who is guilty of writing false stories on any account and who has been proved incapable of making proper distinction between natural or probable events, He cannot be considered a reliable author of those events which are not beyond the limits of possibilities. This does not mean that we should discard their details. This means that where there is consistency in their statements and there is no contradiction, we can accept them as provisionally true. But we cannot accept them as exclusively true. We will always be ready to cancel them in the light of new factual facts. But in passing judgment we shall consider the general nature of the ancient accounts.”6 Fa-hien, We also get valuable information from Chinese travelers like Hieun Tsang and I-tsing. These travelers "made pilgrimages to the places of the life and labors of their favorite deity" and wrote accounts of other sights they saw. Hiuen-Tsang is called 'Prince among travellers'. He lived in India for many years and studied at Nalanda University. Harshavardhana provided protection to Hiuen-Tsang. His description is considered as the encyclopedia of India. From Fahyan we get useful knowledge about the reign of Chandragupta II. E-Tsig visited India in the seventh century after Christ and wrote a very beneficial description of the social and religious condition of the Indians for the historians. Sufficient information is also available in Chinese historical books about the travels and migration of the nomadic tribes living on the borders of China. these Some of the castes later invaded India. Mentions of such and other contemporary events help in building the background of the history of India. Many original books on Buddhism were taken from India to China and there they were translated into Chinese. The original books are no longer available but the translations still exist and give us invaluable information. Historian of Tibet, Taranath, in his book History of Buddhism, has collected enough invaluable material related to Buddhism. The sacred history of the Tibetans named 'Mani, Baka' 'Bum' and the Choz Bien of the Bu Stones History and the Birth of Law in three volumes also give useful information about India. arabic atri, Geographers and historians were also attracted towards India after the eighth century. Instead of writing about the history of India, the early Arab writers wrote more about the inhabitants and the country. Prominent Arab books include Kitab al Fahrist (Collection of Biographies), Kitab Futuh, Al Bela Dori ki Al Boldan, Mozam ul Bolda, The Treasury of the Countries of Yakut and the Atar al Bilad of Al Qazwin and the Monuments of the Countries are famous. Alberuni traveled to India during the time of Mahmud Ghaznavi and presented his remarkable book Tehqiq-i-Hind to us. This book has been translated into English and Hindi and gives a lot of useful material regarding India. Alberuni himself studied Sanskrit language and thus he also studied Sanskrit sources. His book is very large and contains detailed description on many subjects. But his book was based on his study, not on what he had seen. It does not give any impression of his personal knowledge as it was based on Sanskrit books. He has mentioned very little about the condition of the Indians of his time. Not on the things he has seen. It does not give any impression of his personal knowledge as it was based on Sanskrit books. He has mentioned very little about the condition of the Indians of his time. Not on the things he has seen. It does not give any impression of his personal knowledge as it was based on Sanskrit books. He has mentioned very little about the condition of the Indians of his time. 

(4) Tribal Legends

Some information regarding ancient India may also be available from ethnic legends. But while evaluating it from the historical point of view, it is appropriate to know whether they are uniform or polymorphic, whether there is some impression of the interpolations added after their first creation or not. Whether they are generally accepted by the caste or not. It is also necessary to examine the competence of their informants to see how capable they were of understanding the language of their sources. own self 

The tendency to guess from the other side has to be ended and their frequency has to be accepted like a photograph by being completely unbiased. If the legends of a caste fulfill all these criteria, they are undoubtedly invaluable, if not, they have little or no value. Ethnic legends have immense importance in reconstructing the history of Karkhand (Chhota Nagpur). Although there is no specific literature available on those ethnic legends.